<H Q, 






<Ho. 



; & <*> & <*> 






^ 



* PC 



V 





















*> 








« CI, 




^0* ^d< : , ^o« 






V 



^ *> 









' ^ oft * ^ 0^ 






s «* 



& s> 












^ 






,^ 



0^ ' 













^0^ 

^ <& 






V*'° ^ '^ • ■■■- ^ ^^ 






s!= ^ 















^rf ><* s.tf 



!S? 









. ^ 






* 



^^, 



Qi *i 






S> °^- 



\> , ■> ■■ , <i> r 



1 c^ 



> Y * n ^^j. \ N 



^ ^ 









6 ■# * 0^" 









c^' * J' 



%^ 



Aft 



^ ^ 






^^ V^ V^ *\ 



: £ °- 












^ <*■ 


















% .# 



Sn< 









W 






> 
















cx * 















>\ G ^ ^ * <^ 






*1 — -J •-s 



^ ^ 



^°^ 



y ^ 




■0 V » ^ * " / \^ f P V * ^ * " r ^ 




V 



^ 














^0^ - 



V 




\# 



\.^- ' 







^o< 





»,. v-\>*\--.,^ 



C>, '/ 






OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 



-The 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA ■ SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



OUR 
NATIONAL FORESTS 

A SHORT POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE 
WORK OF THE UNITED STATES FOREST 
SERVICE ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS 



BY 
RICHARD H. DOUAI BOERKER, M.S.F.,Ph.D. 

Arboriculturist, Department of Parks, City of New York. 
With the United States Forest Service from 1910 to 1917. 



I3eto gorfe 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1918 

All rights reserved 









COPTEIGHT, 1918 

Bt the macmillan company 



Set up and electrotyped. Published, September, 1918 



. !452 



SEP 18 M 






1 . 



2 



TX7H0M should this humble volume 
seek to honor but the father and 
mother whose unselfish devotion made 
possible both my education and my, 
profession? .'. .'. .'. .', ,*. 



The highest type of scientific writing is that which sets 
forth useful scientific facts in language which is interesting 
and easily understood by the millions who read. 

L. A. Mann. 



PREFACE 

Forestry is a vast subject. It has to do with 
farm and forest, soil and climate, man and beast. 
It affects hill and valley, mountain and plain. It 
influences the life of cities, states, and nations. 
It deals not only with the manifold problems of 
growing timber and forest by-products, such as 
forage, naval stores, tanbark, and maple sugar, but 
it is intimately related to the navigability of rivers 
and harbors, the flow of streams, the erosion of hill- 
sides, the destruction of fertile farm lands, the 
devastation wrought by floods, the game and birds 
of the forest, the public health, and national pros- 
perity. 

The practice of forestry has, therefore, become 
an important part in the household economy of 
civilized nations. Every nation has learned, 
through the misuse of its forest resources, that for- 
est destruction is followed by timber famines, 
floods, and erosion. Mills and factories depending 
upon a regular stream flow must close down, or use 

vii 



viu PREFACE 

other means for securing their power, which usually 
are more expensive. Floods, besides doing enor- 
mous damage, cover fertile bottom-lands with 
gravel, bowlders, and debris, which ruins these 
lands beyond redemption. The birds, fish, and 
game, which dwell in the forests, disappear with 
them. Springs dry up and a luxurious, well- 
watered country becomes a veritable desert. In 
short, the disappearance of the forests means the 
disappearance of everything in civilization that is 
worth while. 

These are the lessons that some of the world's 
greatest nations have learned, in some cases through 
sad experience. The French people, after neglect- 
ing their forests, following the French Revolution, 
paid the penalty. France, through her reckless 
cutting in the mountain forests, has suffered and is 
still suffering from devastating floods on the Seine 
and other streams. Over one million acres were 
cut over in the mountains, and the slash and young 
growth that was left was destroyed by fire. As a 
result of this forest destruction the fertility of over 
8,000,000 acres of tillable land was destroyed and 
the population of eighteen departments was im- 
poverished or driven out. Now, although over 



PREFACE ix 

$40,000,000 has been expended, only a very small 
part of the damage has been repaired. 

Our own country has learned from its own expe- 
riences and from the experiences of nations like 
France. On a small scale we have endured the 
same devastating floods. Forest fires in the 
United States have caused an average annual loss 
of seventy human lives and from $25,000,000 to 
$50,000,000 worth of timber. The indirect losses 
run close to a half a billion a year. Like other na- 
tions, we have come to the conclusion that forest 
conservation can be assured only through the public 
ownership of forest resources. Other nations have 
bought or otherwise acquired national, state, and 
municipal forests, to assure the people a never- 
failing supply of timber. For this reason, mainly, 
our own National Forests have been created and 
maintained. 

The ever-increasing importance of the forestry 
movement in this country, which brings with it an 
ever-increasing desire for information along for- 
estry lines, has led me to prepare this volume deal- 
ing with our National Forests. To a large extent 
I write from my own experience, having come in 
contact with the federal forestry movement for 



x PREFACE 

more than ten years. My connection with the 
United States Forest Service in various parts of 
the West has given me ample opportunity to study 
every phase of the problem. I am attempting to 
chronicle a wonderful accomplishment by a won- 
derful organization of altruistic Americans, — an ac- 
complishment of which every American has reason 
to feel proud. 

Few people realize that the bringing under ad- 
ministration and protection of these vast forests is 
one of the greatest achievements in the history of 
forest conservation. To place 155,000,000 acres of 
inaccessible, mountainous, forest land, scattered 
through our great western mountain ranges and in 
eighteen Western States, under administration, to 
manage these forests according to scientific forestry 
principles, to make them yield a revenue of almost 
$3,500,000 annually, and to protect them from the 
ravages of forest fires and reducing the huge an- 
nual loss to but a small fraction of what it was 
before — these are some of the things that have been 
accomplished by the United States Forest Service 
within the last twenty years. 

Not only is this a great achievement in itself, but 
few people realize what the solution of the National 



PREFACE xi 

Forest problem has meant to the millions of people 
who live near them; what it has meant to bring 
civilization to the great forested empire of Uncle 
Sam ; what it has meant to change from a condition 
of unrestricted, unregulated misuse with respect to 
the public domain, to a policy of wise, regulated 
use, based upon the principle of the greatest good 
to the greatest number in the long run. In the 
early days before the Forest Service organization 
became established, the people were said to have 
"shot-gun titles" to timber or grazing lands on the 
public domain, and "might made right" in the tru- 
est sense of the word. This crude condition of 
affairs gave way to wise, conservative use under 
government control. Just as the farmer each year 
sets aside a certain amount of his seed for next 
year's planting, just so the stockman saves his 
calves and cows and lambs for greater growth and 
each year sees a part of his herd maturing for mar- 
ket, and just so the forester, under the new system, 
cuts only the mature trees and allows the young 
timber to remain for greater growth and greater 
value in the future, or, in the absence of young 
trees, plants small trees to replace those removed. 
The people of the West are convinced that a 



xii PREFACE 

great work has been done well and wisely. The 
people of the Eastern States will soon realize that 
a similar forest policy, already inaugurated in the 
Appalachian and White Mountains, will mean 
every bit as much to them. 

If I succeed only in a small degree to make my 
reader appreciate the great significance of the Na- 
tional Forest movement to our national economy, 
I will feel amply repaid for the time spent in pre- 
paring this brief statement. I am indebted to the 
Forest Service for many valuable illustrations used 
with the text, and for data and other valuable as- 
sistance. To all those who have aided in the prepa- 
ration of this volume, by reading the manuscript or 
otherwise, I extend my sincere thanks. I am espe- 
cially grateful to Mr. Herbert A. Smith and others 
of the Washington office of the Forest Service for 
having critically read the manuscript and for hav- 
ing offered valuable suggestions. 

Richard H. Douai Boerker. 

New York, N. Y., 
July 7, 1918. 



INTRODUCTION 

FORESTRY AS A NATIONAL PROBLEM 

The forest problem is, both locally and nation- 
ally, of vital internal importance. Not only is 
wood — the chief product of the forest — indispen- 
sable to our daily life, but the forest plays an im- 
portant role in regulating stream flow, thereby re- 
ducing the severity of floods and preventing ero- 
sion. For these reasons the preservation of forests 
ceases to be a problem of private or individual con- 
cern, but forthwith becomes a governmental prob- 
lem, or, at best, an enterprise which should be 
jointly controlled by the National Government and 
the individual States. 

Our Consumption of Wood. It is often said 
that wood enters into our daily life from the time 
we are born until we die — from the cradle to the 
coffin. It is difficult to imagine a civilization with- 
out wood. In our country in a single year we use 
90,000,000 cords of firewood, nearly 40,000,000,000 
feet of lumber, 150,000,000 railroad ties, nearly 
1,700,000,000 barrel staves, 445,000,000 board feet 
of veneer, over 135,000,000 sets of barrel headings, 



xiv INTRODUCTION 

over 350,000,000 barrel hoops, over 3,300,000 cords 
of native pulp wood, 170,000,000 cubic feet of round 
mine timbers, nearly 1,500,000 cords of wood for 
distillation, over 140,000 cords for excelsior, and 
nearly 3,500,000 telephone and telegraph poles. 
In short, we take from our forests yearly, including 
waste in logging and manufacture, more than 
twenty-two billion cubic feet of wood valued at 
about $1,375,000,000. This is enough lumber to 
construct seven board walks twenty-five feet wide 
from the earth to the moon, a distance of about 
240,000 miles, or a board walk one-third of a mile 
wide completely around the earth at the equator. 
These figures give a little idea of the enormous 
annual drainage upon the forests of the United 
States and immediately suggest an important rea- 
son that led to the establishment of our National 
Forests. 

The Lumber Industry. Measured by the num- 
ber of persons employed, lumbering is the coun- 
try's largest manufacturing industry. In its 48,- 
000 saw mills it employs more than 600,000 men. 
Its investment in these plants is over $1,000,- 
000,000, and the investment in standing timber 
is $1,500,000,000 more. This industry furnishes 



INTRODUCTION xv 

the railroads a traffic income of over $200,000,- 
000 annually. If we include in these statistics 
also the derived wood products, we find that over 
1,000,000 wage earners are employed, and that the 
products and derived products are valued at over 
$2,000,000,000 annually. Most certainly we are 
dealing with a very large business enterprise. 

Our Future Lumber Supply. You may ask, 
"What effect have the great annual consumption of 
wood and these large business interests upon the 
future supply of wood?" The most reliable sta- 
tistics show that out of 5,200 billion feet of mer- 
chantable timber which we once possessed, only 
2,900 billion feet are left. In other words, almost 
half of our original supply of timber has been used. 
Besides, the present rate of cutting for all purposes 
exceeds the annual growth of the forests. Even 
the annual growth is considered by many experts 
of unknown quantity and quality, to some extent 
offset by decay in virgin forests. The only logical 
conclusion to draw from this condition of affairs, if 
the present rate of consumption continues, is a tim- 
ber shortage in so far as our most valuable woods 
are concerned. In view of this it is fortunate that 
the National Government began to control the 



xvi INTRODUCTION 

lumber and forest situation by the creation of 
National Forests and the institution of scientific 
forestry practice. 

Forests and Stream Flow. But the forests not 
only supply us with wood. For other reasons they 
deserve governmental consideration. The forests 
in the mountains control our streams, vitally affect 
the industries depending upon water power, reduce 
the severity of floods and erosion, and in this way 
are intimately wrapped up with our great agricul- 
tural interests. For this reason forestry is by na- 
ture less suited for private enterprise. In agricul- 
ture and horticulture the influence of the farm or 
the fruit crop rarely extends beyond the owner's 
fence. What I plant in my field does not affect 
my neighbors; they share neither in my success or 
failure. If by the use of poor methods I ruin the 
fertility of my farm, this fact does not influence 
the fertility of my neighbor's fields. But in for- 
estry it is different. Unfortunately, just as the 
sins of the fathers are visited upon their children, 
so the sins of the mountains are visited upon the 
valleys. 

The mountainous slopes of the Appalachian 
ranges and the steep, broken, granite ridges of the 



INTRODUCTION xvii 

Rockies, the Sierras, and the Cascades are the sites 
most suited in our country for forestry purposes. 
The Appalachian ranges have been affected most 
by the reckless cutting of forests. When these 
mountains were clothed with forests, the rivers ran 
bank full, ships came to the harbors at low tide with 
ease, and factories and cotton-mills ran steadily all 
year long. Since the destruction of these forests 
the surrounding country has suffered from alter- 
nate floods and droughts ; great manufacturing cen- 
ters have lost their steady supply of water ; harbors 
are filled with silt from the mountain sides; and 
fields, once fertile, are covered with sand, gravel, 
and debris, deposited by the ungovernable stream. 
These forests belonged to private individuals who 
disposed of the timber and pocketed all the profits, 
while the community below suffered all the loss. 
In other words, private ownership is inadequate 
since private interest and private responsibility are 
not sufficiently far-reaching and far-sighted. 

Forests and Erosion. Erosion is one of the most 
serious dangers that threaten our farms both by 
transporting fertile soil and by covering the bottom- 
lands with sand, gravel, and debris. Since we are 
largely an agricultural people, the importance of 



xviii INTRODUCTION 

this problem will be readily appreciated. Over 50 
per cent, of our population is rural, and the annual 
production of farm crops has a value of over $5,- 
500,000,000. Farm uplands are washed away or 
eroded by high water, and high water is largely 
caused by the destruction of the forests on the 
mountain slopes. With the forest cover removed, 
there is nothing to obstruct the flow of water down 
the mountain sides. Raindrops beating on the 
bare soil make it hard and compact so that most of 
the water runs off instead of being absorbed by the 
subsoil, with the result that a heavy rain storm 
rushes down through the valleys in a few days in- 
stead of a few weeks, tears out the river banks, 
floods the lowlands, and deposits upon them the 
rocks and gravel carried down from the mountains. 
The most effective means for preventing the erosion 
and destruction of our farmlands is by the wise use 
of the forests at the headwaters of the rivers. 

Forestry a Public Enterprise. From what has 
been said it will be seen that forestry is a national 
business rather than an individual's. Moreover, it 
is of such a protracted nature, reaching continu- 
ously into such long periods of time, demanding so 




Figure 2. A typical National Forest landscape in the high moun- 
tains. Potosi Peak. 13,763 feet, from Yankee Boy Basin, Uneam- 
pahgre National Forest, Ouray County, Colorado. 



INTRODUCTION xix 

many years of time and patience to see the expected 
and promised results, that an individual would not 
live to see the success of his labors. The individual 
becomes easily discouraged and is especially affected 
by financial conditions. The Government, on the 
other hand, having unlimited resources at its com- 
mand can more readily afford to wait for results. 
In fact every consideration of national welfare 
urges the Government to carry it on; it is a sure 
source of revenue, there is none less fluctuating, and 
it is closely connected with the manifold industries 
of life. Its chief product is wood, without which 
the human race, so far, has not succeeded in manag- 
ing its affairs, and which will therefore always have 
a sale value. 

THE EXTENT AND CHARACTER OF OUR 
NATIONAL FORESTS 

How the Government Obtained the National 
Forest Lands. Probably the first question that will 
occur to my reader concerning the National Forests 
is, How did the Government acquire them? To 
answer this question we have but to turn back the 
pages of history to the close of the Revolutionary 



xx INTRODUCTION 

War. Following this war, our country started on 
its career of continental conquest. This conquest 
was largely a peaceful one because most of the west- 
ern country was acquired by treaty or purchase, 
thus: Louisiana Territory was purchased from 
France in 1803; Texas applied for admission into 
the Union in 1845; Oregon Territory was acquired 
by treaty from Great Britain in 1846; the present 
states of California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, 
and Arizona were ceded to us as a result of the 
Mexican War in 1848; and the Gadsden Purchase 
was obtained from Mexico in 1853 and added to 
the territory of New Mexico. Then also Alaska 
was finally purchased from Russia in 1867. These 
large acquisitions, comprising together the western 
two thirds of the United States, were gradually 
divided into territories. Later they became States, 
and were opened up to settlement and development 
by means of various land and mining laws and large 
railroad grants. The National Forests are com- 
posed of the land most valuable for growing timber, 
that has not been acquired in some way by private 
individuals, in the western part of the United 
States. 

The Romance of the National Forest Region. 



INTRODUCTION xxi 

This vast expanse west of the Mississippi River 
boasts of some of the wildest and most romantic 
scenery on the North American continent, and it is 
in the heart of this picturesque country that the Na- 
tional Forests are located. This is the country in 
which Owen Wister, Harold Bell Wright, Stewart 
Edward White, Jack London, Theodore Roosevelt, 
and other authors have gotten their inspirations 
and laid their plots. To one who knows "The Vir- 
ginian," or "When a Man's a Man," or "The Win- 
ning of Barbara Worth," or "The Valley of the 
Moon," nothing more need be said. To others I 
might say that my pen picture of that country is a 
very poor and very inadequate method of descrip- 
tion. It is the land of the cow-puncher, the sheep- 
herder, and the lumber-jack; a land of crude cus- 
toms and manners, but, withal, generous hospitality. 
It is the country of the elk and the mule-tail deer, 
the mountain lion and the rattlesnake. Its gran- 
deur makes you love it ; its vastness makes you fear 
it ; yet there is an irresistible charm, a magic lure, an 
indescribable something that stamps an indelible 
impression upon the mind and that makes you want 
to go back there after you have sworn an oath never 
to return. 



xxii INTRODUCTION 

This National Forest empire presents a great va- 
riety of scenery, of forest, and of topography. The 
beautiful white pine forests of Idaho and Montana, 
the steep pine- and spruce-clad granite slopes of the 
Colorado Rockies, and the sun-parched mesas of 
the Southwest, with their open park-like forests of 
yellow pine, all have their individual charm. And 
after crossing the well-watered Cascades and Sierra 
Nevadas we find forest scenery entirely different. 
The dense, luxuriant, giant-forests of the coast re- 
gion of Oregon and Washington, bathed in an al- 
most continual fog and rain, are without doubt the 
most wonderful forests in the world. And lastly, 
California, so far as variety of forest scenery is con- 
cerned, has absolutely no rival. The open oak 
groves of the great valleys, the arid pine- and oak- 
covered foothills, the valuable sugar pine and "big- 
tree" groves of the moist mountain slopes, and the 
dwarfed pine and hemlock forests near the serrated 
crest of the Sierras, all occur within a comparatively 
short distance of each other, and, in fact, may be 
seen in less than a day on any one of the many 
National Forests in these mountains. 

Famous Scenic Wonders Near the Forests. 



INTRODUCTION xxiii 

Many of the beautiful National Parks that have 
been created by Congress are either entirely or 
partly surrounded by one or more of the National 
Forests. These parks are a Mecca to which hun- 
dreds of thousands of our people make their annual 
pilgrimage. Most of these parks are already fa- 
mous for their scenery, and, in consequence, the 
National Forests surrounding them have received 
greater patronage and fame. The Glacier Na- 
tional Park in Montana, the Yellowstone in Wy- 
oming, the Rocky Mountain in Colorado, the 
Mount Rainier in Washington, the Crater Lake in 
Oregon, the Wind Cave in South Dakota, and the 
Lassen Peak Volcanic Park, the Yosemite, General 
Grant, and Sequoia parks in California, are all sit- 
uated in the heart of the National Forest region. 

The highest and best-known mountain peaks in 
the United States are either located within or situ- 
ated near the National Forests, as, for example, 
Rainier and Olympus in Washington; Hood, 
Baker, St. Helens, Jefferson, and Adams in Ore- 
gon; Shasta, Lassen, and Whitney in California; 
and Pikes Peak in Colorado. 

Then there are the National Monuments, of 



xxiv INTRODUCTION 

which there are eleven, all situated within one or 
more of the National Forests. These were created 
under an act of Congress for the preservation of 
objects of historic or scientific interest. The lar- 
gest monument, and no doubt the most famous, is 
the Grand Canyon National Monument located in 
the Tusayan and Kaibab National Forests in Ari- 
zona, comprising over 800,000 acres. The next 
largest is the Mount Olympus Monument on the 
Olympic National Forest in Washington, compris- 
ing almost 300,000 acres. Other well-known mon- 
uments are the Cinder Cone and the Lassen Peak 
Monuments on the Lassen National Forest in Cali- 
fornia, and the Cliff Dwellings on the Gila National 
Forest in New Mexico. 

The Size and Extent of the National Forests. 
With this brief introduction of the nature of the 
country in which the National Forests are located, 
the reader will be interested to know something of 
the size of the Forests and their total area. The 
total area varies slightly from time to time, due to 
the addition of lands that have been found to have 
value for forestry purposes, or to the elimination of 
lands found to be chiefly valuable for agricultural 
use. On June 30, 1917, there were 147 National 



INTRODUCTION xxv 

Forests with a total of 155,166,619 acres. Thus 
the average National Forest comprises about one 
million acres of government lands. The many 
private holdings scattered through the Forests make 
the average gross area of each Forest much greater. 
These Forests are located in Alaska, Arizona, Ar- 
kansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Mich- 
igan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, 
New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, 
Porto Rico, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and 
Wyoming. Besides these Forests there have been 
acquired or approved for purchase under the Weeks 
Law over 1,500,000 acres in the States of Georgia, 
Maine, New Hampshire, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. 
These lands are now under protection and will 
gradually be consolidated into National Forests. 
More lands are constantly being acquired in the 
Eastern States in accordance with the Weeks Law. 
Few people have any conception of what a gigan- 
tic empire the National Forest domain is. If con- 
solidated into one large compact area, the 155 mil- 
lion acres of National Forests would cover an area 
larger than the combined areas of thirteen well- 
known Eastern States, viz.: Maine, Vermont, 



xxvi INTRODUCTION 

New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, 
Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and West 
Virginia ( see map ) . This area is also one fifth 
larger than the entire area of France. We marvel 
sometimes at the ability of a ruler to rule a country 
as large as France or Germany; why should we 
Americans not marvel at the ability of the man 
who practically rules over our National Forests, 
who keeps in perfect working order the great or- 
ganization which protects and administrates the 
Forests? 

The Topography and Climate of the National 
Forest Region, The difficulty of the work of this 
organization is at once apparent when we find that 
these Forests are located in wild, rugged, moun- 
tainous country, in most cases many miles from the 
railroad and human habitations, such as towns and 
cities. This country is usually far above sea level 
— the average being between 3,000 and 8,000 feet 
in altitude. But there are large areas in the Na- 
tional Forests of Colorado that lie above 10,000 feet 
elevation. Such country as this has a very severe 
climate. The climate is usually too cold and the 



INTRODUCTION xxvii 

growing seasons too short for the production of 
crops such as wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, etc. 
Therefore, practically all of this land is what the 
forester calls "absolute forest land," that is, it is 
better adapted for growing timber crops than any- 
other. Another important fact about the National 
Forests is that they are located, for the most part, 
on steep mountain slopes and at the headwaters of 
mountain streams. This makes them of vital im- 
portance in regulating the stream flow of our west- 
ern rivers. In fact it is no exaggeration to say that 
all our large western rivers have their origin on 
National Forest land. 

WHY THE NATIONAL FORESTS WERE CREATED 

Aside from the great economic reasons why a 
nation should possess National Forests, there are 
local reasons which pertain to the welfare of the 
home builder and home industries which are often 
of paramount importance. The timber, the water, 
the pasture, the minerals, and all other resources on 
the government lands in the West are for the use 
of all the people. And only by a well-regulated 
policy of sale or rental can these resources be dis- 



xxviii INTRODUCTION 

posed so as to give all individuals an equal oppor- 
tunity to enjoy them. These vast resources have 
been estimated to have a value of over $2,000,000,- 
000. But their value to the local communities can 
hardly be overestimated. The welfare of every 
community is dependent upon a cheap and plentiful 
supply of timber. If lumber, fence posts, mine 
props, telephone poles, firewood, etc., must be 
brought in from distant markets, the prices are 
usually very much higher. The regulation of the 
cut on each National Forest assures a never-failing 
supply of timber to the home builder and to home 
industries. Then also the permanence of the great 
live stock industry is dependent upon a conservative 
use of vast areas of government range. Local resi- 
dents are protected from unfair competition. 
Lastly, the protection by the Forest Service of the 
forest cover in the western mountains assures a 
regular stream flow which is of vital importance 
for power, irrigation, and domestic purposes. 

Perhaps the most comprehensive statement upon 
the purposes of the National Forests and the meth- 
ods and general policy of administering them is to 
be found in a letter by the Secretary of Agricul- 
ture to the Forester, dated February 1, 1905, when 




figure 3. The climate of most of the National Forests is severe. 
This view was taken in the early summer and shows the high moun- 
tains still covered with snow. Most of the National Forest lands 
are therefore of small value for agriculture. Photo bv Abbev. 



Figure 4. On many high mountains on the National Forests snow 
banks persist throughout the summer. This view was taken in the 
latter part of August. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo 
by the author. 



INTRODUCTION xxix 

the Forests were turned over to the Department of 
Agriculture : 

"In the administration of the forest reserves it must be 
clearly borne in mind that all land is to be devoted to its 
most productive use for the permanent good of the whole 
people, and not for the temporary benefit of individuals or 
companies. All the resources of the forest reserves are for 
use, and this use must be brought about in a thoroughly prompt 
and businesslike manner, under such restrictions only as will 
insure the permanence of these resources. The vital impor- 
tance of forest reserves to the great industries of the West- 
ern States will be largely increased in the near future by 
the continued steady advance in settlement and develop- 
ment. The permanence of the resources of the reserves is 
therefore indispensable to continued prosperity, and the policy 
of this Department for their protection and use will in- 
variably be guided by this fact, bearing in mind that the con- 
servative use of these resources in no way conflicts with their 
permanent value. 

"You will see to it that the water, wood, and forage of 
the reserves are conserved and wisely used for the benefit 
of the home builder first of all, upon whom depends the best 
permanent use of lands and resources alike. The continued 
prosperity of the agricultural, lumbering, mining, and live- 
stock interests is directly dependent upon a permanent and 
accessible supply of water, wood, and forage, as well as upon 
the present and future use of these resources under business- 
like regulations, enforced with promptness, effectiveness, and 
common sense. In the management of each reserve local ques- 
tions will be decided upon local grounds ; the dominant in- 
dustry will be considered first, but with as little restriction 
to minor industries as may be possible; sudden changes in in- 



xxx INTRODUCTION 

dustrial conditions will be avoided by gradual adjustment 
after due notice, and where conflicting interests must be 
reconciled the question will always be decided from the stand- 
point of the greatest good of the greatest number in the long 



HOW THE NATIONAL FOREST POLICY HAS 
BENEFITED THE PEOPLE 

This general policy, which was laid down by the 
Secretary of Agriculture, has been followed out, 
with the result that a great many benefits have 
been derived by the nation as a whole, by the in- 
dividual States in which the National Forests are 
located, and, lastly, by the local communities and 
users of the Forests. 

The Remaining Timber Resources Were Saved. 
First of all the timber, the forage, and the water- 
power on the public domain has been reserved for 
the whole people and not for a privileged few. 
Before the Forest Reserve policy went into effect, 
the most valuable timber was being withdrawn from 
government ownership by the misuse of the public 
land laws, whose purpose and intent were fraudu- 
lently evaded. Many claims were initiated appar- 
ently for the purpose of establishing a homestead 
but in reality for the purposes of securing the tim- 



INTRODUCTION xxxi 

ber on the land and later to dispose of it to some 
large timber holder. Every citizen is allowed to 
exercise his homestead right. Big timber operators 
would secure the services of many dummy locators, 
pay the expenses of locating, improving, and per- 
fecting the patent, and then buy the claim from 
these dummies for small sums. A large timber 
holder in California secured his hundreds of thou- 
sands of acres of timber land in this way. By in- 
structing these men where to locate their claims he 
was able to secure more or less solid blocks of timber 
made up originally of 160 acre patches. These 
patches, which originally were bought by the lum- 
ber barons for from $500 to $800 a claim, now have 
a value of from $8,000 to as high as $20,000. The 
people of the United States have lost the difference. 
It is difficult to say where or how this wholesale 
misuse of the public land laws would have ended 
if it had not been for the inauguration of the Na- 
tional Forest policy. Since the Government has 
taken full charge of its forest domain, this misuse 
has stopped. In fact many of the fraudulent 
claims located years ago are being investigated, and 
if they are found to have been initiated with intent 
to defraud the Government, the land and the timber 



xxxii INTRODUCTION 

is returned to the National Forest in which it is 
located. To-day the National Forests contain 
about one fifth of the standing timber in the United 
States, an amount which will undoubtedly have a 
great effect upon the supply of timber available 
for future generations, especially since under pres- 
ent lumbering methods the privately owned timber 
lands are being practically destroyed, while the Na- 
tional Forests are actually being improved by sci- 
entific management. Four fifths of the standing 
timber is privately owned, and this is usually of 
much higher quality than the publicly owned tim- 
ber. 

The Use of Forage and Water Resources Was 
Regulated. The forage and water resources of the 
public domain have been subject to similar abuse. 
Before the National Forest policy was put into 
effect the large ranges of the West were used indis- 
criminately by all. The range was subject to con- 
siderable abuse because it was used very early in 
the spring before the forage was mature, or too 
late in the fall, which prevented the forage from 
ripening its seed and reproducing for the next sea- 
son. Not the small, local stockmen, however, but 
the large sheep and cattle companies, many con- 




'igure .). The Big Trees. "Mother of the Forest" in the background 

North Calaveras Grove, California 



INTRODUCTION xxxiii 

trolled by foreign capital, benefited by this condi- 
tion of affairs. These "big men," as they were 
called, illegally fenced and monopolized large areas, 
varying in size from townships to entire counties. 
What chance would a local rancher with fifty or 
sixty cattle have against a million-dollar outfit with 
perhaps 40,000 to 50,000 cattle? He was merely 
swallowed up, so to speak, and had no chance what- 
ever to get his small share. "Might made right" 
in those days, and it is said that if a man held any 
title or equity on the range it was a "shotgun" 
title. Also, the sheep and cattle men had innu- 
merable disputes about the use of the range which 
in many cases resulted in bloodshed. If a sheep 
man arrived first on the range in the spring with 
his large bands of sheep, he simply took the feed. 
The Government owned the land and the forage 
but it had no organization in the field to regulate 
the use of it. It was indeed a chaotic condition 
of affairs and ended only after the inauguration 
of the present policy of leasing the lands under the 
permit system. These permits are issued and 
charged for upon a per capita basis. 

The conservative and regulated use of the graz- 
ing lands under Forest Service supervision has re- 



xxxiv INTRODUCTION 

suited in better growth and better weights on stock 
and more actual profit. There are ample data that 
show that the National Forests produce some of 
the best lambs that are put upon the market. Data 
secured from the Modoc National Forest, Cali- 
fornia, in 1910, show that lambs brought 50 cents 
per head more and weighed an average of 10 
pounds more than lambs produced outside the For- 
est. Weights taken of 10,000 head showed an av- 
erage of 72 pounds for National Forest lambs, 
while outside the Forest average weights on 3,000 
lambs showed only 62 pounds. The regulation of 
the length of the grazing season, the introduction 
of better methods of handling sheep, and the pre- 
vention of over-grazing are some of the Forest 
Service methods that produce better lambs. 

Then also under the old system the valuable 
water-power sites were being rapidly eliminated 
from government ownership by large corporations 
who secured valuable property for a song. The 
National Forests, however, still contain about one- 
third of the potential water-power resources of the 
United States and over 40 per cent, of the esti- 
mated power resources of the Western States. 
And this vast wealth will not pass from the owner- 



INTRODUCTION xxxv 

ship of the United States but will be leased under 
long-term leases from which the Government will 
receive yearly a fair rental. 

The Forests Were Protected from Fire and 
Trespass. But not only have these large timber, 
forage, and power resources been put under admin- 
istration for the use of the people. The protection 
of the National Forests, which goes hand in hand 
with their administration, means a great deal to 
the local communities, the States, and the nation as 
a whole. Until about twenty years ago the forests 
upon our public lands — the timber of the Rocky 
Mountains from Montana to New Mexico and of 
the Pacific Coast ranges from northern Washing- 
ton to southern California — seemed destined to 
be destroyed by fire and reckless, illegal cutting. 
Nothing whatever was being done to protect them 
from fire or trespass. They were simply left to 
burn. When the people living near the public do- 
main wanted any house logs, fence posts, or fire- 
wood, they went into the public domain and took 
them. The best trees were usually taken first. In 
California, especially, there was a common practice 
of cutting down the finest sugar pine trees and 
cutting and splitting them into shakes to make a 



xxxvi INTRODUCTION 

roof covering. Then, too, much government tim- 
ber was stolen by lumber companies operating in 
the vicinity of valuable government timber. After 
the land had been stripped of everything of value 
a fire was started in the slashing, which among other 
things burned the stumps and thus practically oblit- 
erated all evidence of trespass. Had this destruc- 
tion continued there would to-day have been little 
timber left in the West, and the development of 
the country which demands timber all the time, and 
not only at certain intervals, would have been re- 
tarded, if not stopped altogether. 

How terrible the forest fires were in this western 
country is well illustrated by what an old California 
settler once told me, and what I have heard re- 
peatedly in many Western States. He said: "In 
the years before the Forest Service took over the 
care and protection of the forests around here, the 
mountains within view of my ranch were not visible 
for many months at a time, being almost continu- 
ally enveloped in smoke from the big forest fires 
that were raging in the forests all summer without 
ever being under control. They started in the 
spring as soon as it became dry and were not sup- 
pressed until the late fall rains and snows put them 




A 

Figure G. A scene on one of the famous National Parks. Upper 
Lake, Glacier National Park, Northern Rockies, Montana 



INTRODUCTION xxxvii 

out." But he added with great enthusiasm, "Since 
the Service has taken charge the sky around here 
is as clear as crystal all summer. I never see any 
forest fires, not even smoke, because the Rangers 
seem to get to them before they get to be of any 
size." Such testimony as this speaks volumes for 
the efficiency of the present system of protecting 
the Forests from fire. 

The Watershed Cover Was Preserved. The de- 
struction of the forest cover on the watersheds 
feeding thousands of streams which rise in the 
western mountains would have had its bad effect 
on stream flow — low water during the long dry 
periods, and destructive floods after heavy rains. 
This condition of affairs would have meant disas- 
ter to the systems of irrigation by which most of 
the western farmers raise their crops. It would 
also have seriously impeded and in many cases 
prevented electric power development, to say noth- 
ing of affecting the domestic water of many of our 
large western cities whose drinking water comes 
from the streams rising in the National For- 
ests. The protection of these valuable watersheds 
by the Forest Service from fire and destructive 
lumbering is of such vital importance to the wel- 



xxxviii INTRODUCTION 

fare of the nation that it has been made one of the 
main reasons for establishing National Forests. 

Civilization Brought to the Mountains. What 
the National Forest movement has done for settling 
and building up the Western States can hardly be 
overestimated. It has brought civilization into the 
wilderness. Roads, trails, telephone lines, and 
other modern conveniences have been brought to 
remote corners of the mountains. It has encour- 
aged the settlement of the country by calling atten- 
tion to the agricultural lands within the National 
Forests. More important than that, it has assured 
the West permanent towns, permanent civilization, 
and not a temporary, careless, shiftless civilization 
which vanishes with the exploitation of resources, 
as it did under the old regime. 

The improvements on the National Forests have 
benefited not only the Forest officers for the admin- 
istration of the Forests. They have helped im- 
mensely the local population. The pleasure resorts 
as well as the business of the Forests have been 
made more accessible. New trails have opened up 
new and hitherto inaccessible country, where fishing, 
hunting, and trapping are ideal. All the old and 
new roads and trails have been well marked with 



INTRODUCTION xxxix 

sign boards giving the tourist detailed information 
about distances between the various points of inter- 
est. Roads have opened up new regions to auto- 
mobiles and to the horse and wagon. In 1916 it 
was estimated that more than 2,000,000 people vis- 
ited the National Forests for recreation and pleas- 
ure. They came in automobiles, in horse and 
wagon, on horseback, on mules, on burros, and in all 
sorts of made-to-order contrivances, and the writer 
has even seen those that could not afford anything 
better, pack their camp outfits in a wheelbarrow and 
push it before them in their effort to leave the hot, 
dusty valleys below, and go to the refreshing and in- 
vigorating Forests of Uncle Sam. In addition to 
the large numbers of tourists that visit the National 
Forests every year, over 100,000 persons or com- 
panies use the National Forests. Of these a little 
more than half are paid users, who are charged a 
fair fee for timber, grazing, or other privileges and 
a little less than half enjoy free use privileges. 

Agricultural Lands Opened to Settlement. The 
settlement of the agricultural lands in the National 
Forests is a matter that has received special atten- 
tion at the hands of the Forest Service in late years. 
Land more valuable for agriculture than for timber 



xl INTRODUCTION 

growing was excluded from the National Forests 
before the boundaries were drawn, so far as this 
was possible. Small tracts of agricultural land 
within the Forests which could not be excluded are 
opened to settlement under the Forest Homestead 
Act of June 11, 1906. The amount of land, how- 
ever, that is more valuable for agriculture than for 
timber is trifling, because the greater part of the 
valuable land was already settled before the Forests 
were created. The few small patches that are left 
inside of the National Forest boundaries are rap- 
idly being classified and opened to entry for home- 
steads. Much of the land apparently adapted for 
agricultural purposes has a severe climate because 
it lies at high altitudes and it is often remote from 
roads, schools, villages, and markets. Therefore 
the chance offered the prospective settler in the 
immediate'vicinity of the Forests is far better than 
in the Forests themselves. The Forest Service is 
doing everything it can to encourage homesteaders 
on the National Forests ; it wants them because they 
help to report fires, help to fight fires, and in many 
other ways assist the Forest officers. 

Permanent and Not Temporary Civilization Re- 
sulted. Only those people who have been brought 



INTRODUCTION xli 

up near a large lumbering center can appreciate 
what it means when a town vanishes ; when all that 
is left of a thriving town of 5,000 or more souls is 
empty streets, empty houses, and heaps of tin cans. 
In the days of the Golden Age of lumbering in 
Michigan many towns flourished in the midst of the 
forests. These towns had thrifty^ busy people, 
with schools, churches, banks, and other conven- 
iences. These people were engaged in exploiting 
the forests. The beautiful white pine forests were 
converted into boards at the rate of thousands of 
feet every day. When these magnificent forests 
were laid low, the lumbermen left to seek virgin 
timber elsewhere. They left behind them empty 
towns and barren lands ; only a few charred stumps 
remained to show where the forests once stood. 
But this is not an incident peculiar to the Golden 
Age of lumbering in Michigan. Even to-day this 
very thing is happening. The town of Crossfork, 
Potter County, Pennsylvania, had a population of 
over 2,500 souls in 1909. When the near-by timber 
was exhausted, practically the whole town was 
abandoned. In 1913 it had a population of 50. 

In direct contrast to this short-sighted policy of 
the State of Michigan (and many others also) is 



xlii INTRODUCTION 

the National Forest policy, which provides for a 
future supply of forest products as well as a present 
supply; which provides for work and homes and 
schools and churches for future generations as well 
as for the present ; which provides for a permanent 
industry and not one that vanishes with the ex- 
ploitation of the resources of a region as snow van- 
ishes under the warm rays of a spring day. Lum- 
bering even to-day is merely the removal of every 
vestige of timber that has any sale value. But for- 
estry, which is practiced on the National Forests, 
removes only the mature trees, leaving the young 
growth to be cut at some future time. Lumbering 
has been and is to-day forest destruction; forestry 
is forest conservation under a system of wise use. 
Lumbering is followed usually by fire, and often 
by an entire impoverishment of the region in which 
it is carried on because it destroys both the mature 
tree and the young growth ; under a system of for- 
estry, cutting is followed by young, green forests 
which are protected from fire for the benefit of 
future generations. Such a system leaves the re- 
gion and the industry in a permanent, good condi- 
tion. The county under the old system receives no 
more taxes after its wealth is gone ; but each county 





Figure 7. The remains of the old boiler house. The town once had 
a sawmill, planing mill, lath mill, besides modern conveniences. All 
these are now gone after the forests have been cut. Lemiston, Mont- 
morency County, Michigan. 

Figure 8. Deserted houses, abandoned after the sawmill left. 
These are the remains of what was once a prosperous town. Lemis- 
ton, Montmorency County, Michigan. 



INTRODUCTION xliii 

will receive taxes or money in lieu of taxes every 
year as long as the National Forests shall endure. 

Financial Returns. All the benefits of which 
I have spoken are without doubt great assets to 
the local community, to the State, and to the nation 
as a whole. They are great contributions to the 
welfare of our country even though they cannot be 
measured in dollars and cents. This brings us then 
to the financial aspect of the National Forest move- 
ment. Even though the fundamental purpose of 
the National Forests was in no sense a financial one, 
it is interesting to look into the finances of this great 
forestry enterprise. 

The total regular appropriation for salaries, gen- 
eral expenses, and improvements for the fiscal year 
1918 is $5,712,275. For 1917 it was slightly less 
than this: $5,574,735. The receipts from the sale 
or rental of National Forest resources in the fiscal 
year 1917 reached $3,457,028.41. From these fig- 
ures it will be seen that the expenditures exceed the 
receipts by between $2,000,000 and $3,000,000 a 
year, depending partly on the severity of the fire 
season and partly on the activity of the general 
lumber market. When we consider that this is 
really a newly established business scarcely twenty 



xliv INTRODUCTION 

years old; that large expenditures have been made 
and must necessarily be made every year for equip- 
ment and improvements before the resources could 
even be used ; and that an efficient organization had 
to be built up to handle the business, we must con- 
fess that the receipts are really a wonderful show- 
ing. 

When the Forest Reserves were taken over by 
the Government it could not be expected that they 
would yield a revenue at the very outset, nor could 
it be expected that even in the long space of twenty- 
five years they could be made self-supporting. 
The reasons for this are many. They are located 
for the most part in rugged, inaccessible mountains. 
In the case of almost every Forest a great deal of 
money had to be expended for roads, trails, tele- 
phone lines, fences, bridges, ranger stations and 
other cabins, lookout structures, fire lines, and 
many other improvements before the resources 
could even be used. Many of the resources were 
practically locked up ; there were no roads by which 
to get them out of the wilderness. During the fis- 
cal year 1916 alone there were built 227 miles of 
roads, 1,975 miles of trails, 2,124 miles of telephone 
lines, 89 miles of fire lines, 81 lookout structures, 40 



INTRODUCTION xlv 

bridges, 222 miles of fences, 545 dwellings, barns, 
and other structures, and many other improve- 
ments. Up to date there have been constructed 
over 3,000 miles of roads, over 25,000 miles of trails, 
about 23,000 miles of telephone lines, 860 miles of 
firebreaks, about 360 forest fire lookout cabins and 
towers, and many other improvements. Their to- 
tal value is estimated at $7,000,000. And these 
vast improvements are but a small percentage of 
the improvements which will be necessary to be 
able to put these Forests to their highest use. 

Not only must enormous sums be spent for im- 
provements. The huge sums which are spent for 
the protection of the great resources bring no tangi- 
ble return in dollars and cents ; yet the fire protec- 
tion system prevents the destruction of millions of 
dollars' worth of timber every year. Then again, 
when government timber lands are cut over, only 
the mature trees are taken; the smaller trees, al- 
though they have a commercial value, are left on 
the ground to mature because they will have a still 
greater value in from forty to fifty years. This is 
merely foregoing a small present revenue for a 
larger future one. Also many National Forests 
have on them large areas of steep mountain slopes 



xlvi INTRODUCTION 

where not a stick of timber is allowed to be cut. 
These areas are maintained intact for watershed 
protection. In fact many of the Forests of south- 
ern California are maintained solely for this pur- 
pose. These Forests are covered almost entirely 
by a low bush-like growth called "chaparral," which 
has no value either as timber or as browse, but which 
has great value to preserve an equable stream flow 
for domestic use, irrigation, and water power. 

But there are still other reasons why the cash 
receipts from the National Forests are not as large 
as they might be. In addition to the cash receipts 
the equivalent of a large revenue is foregone every 
year through the various forms of free use and the 
sale of timber to settlers at cost instead of at its 
actual cash value. During the fiscal year 1917 ap- 
proximately $150,000 worth of timber was given to 
settlers free of cost. About 40,000 people were 
served under this policy. Also much timber is sold 
at cost to settlers for domestic use. In this way 
over 4,400 persons received many millions of feet of 
timber whose cost value was about $20,000, but 
whose sale value was much greater. The privilege 
of grazing a small number of stock free of charge 
is granted to settlers living on or near the Forests. 



INTRODUCTION xlvii 

The stock thus grazed amounts to about 125,000 
animals every year. The Forests are also put to 
many special uses for which no charge is made al- 
though their administration involves some expense. 
Strict accounting should credit the fair value of 
such uses to the receipts from the National For- 
ests, for it is in effect income which instead of being 
put into the treasury is made available for the 
benefit of the people. 

From what has been said it will be seen that a 
large part of the benefits derived from the system- 
atic administration of the National Forests cannot 
be measured in dollars and cents. These benefits 
are in effect privileges extended to the people who 
in return assist in the protection of the Forests from 
fire and thus more than repay the Government for 
what they receive. Even under the rather unfa- 
vorable revenue producing conditions mentioned 
above, it is interesting to note that in 1917 the re- 
ceipts of thirty-two National Forests exceeded their 
total expenditures. On fifteen others the receipts 
exceeded the cost of protection and administration. 
In other words, one-third of the National Forests 
are practically self-supporting. 

The New Eastern National Forests. The great 



xlviii INTRODUCTION 

success with which the National Forest policy was 
launched in the Western States was largely re- 
sponsible for the inauguration of a similar policy 
in the Appalachian and White Mountains. The 
main purpose for which these forests are to be ac- 
quired is to preserve a steady stream flow for water- 
power navigation and domestic use, and to lessen 
the damage caused by floods and erosion. These 
forests are of vital influence in controlling the flow 
of the Merrimac, Connecticut, Androscoggin, Poto- 
mac, James, Santee, Savannah, Tennessee, and 
Monongahela rivers. Some years ago the Merri- 
mac drove mills worth over $100,000,000, which 
employed over 80,000 people. Upon these, it is 
said, 350,000 were dependent for support. In the 
Carolinas and Georgia alone the cotton mills oper- 
ated by water-power turn out an annual product 
valued at almost $100,000,000. In these mills 
60,000 people are employed, upon whom 250,000 
are dependent for support. These mills utilize 
106,000 horse-power. The forests which control 
these waters are therefore of great pecuniary value. 
The Act of March 1, 1911, commonly known as 
the Weeks Law, made the acquisition of forest 
lands in the Appalachian and White Mountains 



INTRODUCTION xlix 

possible. Up to June 30, 1917, over 1,500,000 
acres have been approved for purchase by the Na- 
tional Forest Reservation Commission. The For- 
est Service has been designated as the bureau to 
examine and value such lands as may be offered 
for purchase. The original appropriation was 
$2,000,000 per year for five and one-half years, be- 
ginning the last half of the fiscal year 1911. The 
Agricultural Appropriation Bill for the fiscal year 
1913 made the appropriation for 1912 and subse- 
quent years available until expended. A further 
appropriation of $3,000,000 was provided later for 
the same purpose, to be expended during the fiscal 
years 1917 and 1918. Under Section 2 of the same 
law cooperative fire protection with the States was 
provided for. This section of the law provided that 
the Forest Service should maintain a cooperative 
system of forest fire protection with those States 
which have a law providing for a system of fire 
protection for state and private forest lands upon 
the watersheds of navigable streams. In no case 
was the amount to be expended by the Forest 
Service to exceed the amount appropriated by the 
State for the same purpose in any given fiscal year. 
The original appropriation was $200,000 and sub- 



1 INTRODUCTION 

sequent appropriations have been for $100,000 an- 
nually. Twenty-one States are cooperating with 
the Forest Service in this way. 

By the passage of the Weeks Bill, Congress has 
voiced the sentiment that the forest fire problem, 
even on private land, is not only no longer a private 
problem, is not even exclusively a state problem, 
but a joint problem and duty to be borne by the 
State and nation. Forest fires are now rightfully 
looked upon as a public enemy rather than a pri- 
vate menace. This is a big step in the right di- 
rection, and it is hoped that this same principle 
will be applied in the not too distant future to all 
other matters dealing with private timber lands. 
If the protection of these private timber lands is a 
public and not a private problem, then certainly 
their management for continuity is a public prob- 
lem. A timber owner should not be allowed to cut 
his timber without the consent of the Government, 
and the Government should see to it that he leaves 
the young growth as a basis for a future crop or 
provides a new growth of timber by planting young 
trees. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface vii 

Introduction xiii 

Forestry as a National Problem xiii 

Our consumption of wood xiii 

The lumber industry xiv 

Our future lumber supply xv 

Forests and stream flow xvi 

Forests and erosion xvii 

Forestry a public enterprise xviii 

The Extent and Character of Our National For- 
ests .... xix 

How the Government obtained the National 

Forest lands xix 

The romance of the National Forest region . xx 

Famous scenic wonders near the Forests . . xxii 

The size and extent of the National Forests . xxiv 
The topography and climate of the National 

Forest region xxvi 

Why the National Forests were Created . . xxvii 
How the National Forest Policy has Benefited 

the People xxx 

The remaining timber resources were saved . xxx 
The use of forage and water resources was 

regulated xxxii 

The Forests were protected from fire and 

trespass xxxv 

The watershed cover was preserved . . . xxxvii 
Civilization brought to the mountains . . xxxviii 
Agricultural lands opened to settlement . . xxxix 
Permanent and not temporary civilization re- 
sulted xl 

Financial returns xliii 

The new eastern National Forests . . ., xlvii 
liii 



liv CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I The Creation and Organization of the National 

Forests 1 

Economic Conditions Which Led to Forest Con- 
servation 1 

Prodigality leads finally to conservation . . 1 

The march of forest destruction 2 

Our lumber and water supply imperiled ... 5 

The First Steps in Federal Forest Conservation . 6 

The upbuilding of the West 6 

The Lake States first to act 7 

The first federal steps 8 

The Act of August 16, 1876 9 

Further work under the Act 11 

The First Forest Reserves Established March 30, 

1891 12 

The situation before 1891 12 

The need of the forest policy 13 

The Act of March 3, 1891 14 

An Anomalous Condition — Forest Reserves With- 
out Forest Administration 14 

The Need of Administration on the Reserves . 14 

More Reserves created 16 

The Administration of the Reserves Under the 

General Land Office 16 

The Act of June 4, 1897 16 

The Division of Forestry in 1898 .... 18 

The Bureau of Forestry 19 

The Consolidation of the Forestry Work in the 

Department of Agriculture in 1905 . . . 19 

The Act of February 1, 1905 19 

Early forestry education and literature ... 20 

Changes in the Forest Service personnel . . 21 

More National Forests created ..... 21 

The growth of the Forest Service .... 22 

Recent modifications in the organization ... 23 

The Present Organization of the Forest Service . 24 

The administrative districts 24 

The Washington office 26 

The district offices 98 



CONTENTS lv 

PAGE 

II The Administration of the National Forests . 30 

Personnel 31 

Duties of forest officers 31 

The Forest Supervisor .32 

The Forest Assistant 34 

The Forest Ranger 35 

The Forest Clerk 38 

Forest Service Meetings 39 

How the Forest Service Appropriation is Allotted 

to the National Forests 40 

Forest Service expenses 40 

The agricultural appropriation bill .... 42 

The ranger's protection and improvement plans 42 

The Supervisor's plans 43 

Approval of plans by the District Forester . . 44 

The district fiscal agent 45 

Tax money paid to the states 46 

The Equipment and Supplies for the National 

Forests 47 

The property auditor and property clerk . . 47 

Blank forms 48 

Supplies 48 

National Forest Improvements 49 

The need of improvements 49 

Transportation facilities 50 

Communication facilities 53 

Grazing improvements 56 

Protection improvements 57 

Appropriations for improvement work ... 58 

The Classification and Consolidation of National 

Forest Lands 61 

Land classification 61 

The consolidation of National Forest lands . 63 

How Young Forests are Planted to Replace Those 

Destroyed by Fire 64 

Reforestation and the timber supply ... 64 

Reforestation and water supply .... 65 

Government reforestation policy 67 

Methods of reforestation 70 



lvi CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Direct seeding work on the National Forests . 72 
Planting on the National Forests .... 78 
The Organization and Scope of Forest Experi- 
ments and Investigations 83 

The need of scientific experiments .... 83 
The science of growing timber . . ... . .84 

Dendrological studies 86 

Seed studies 87 

Nursery studies 88 

Forestation experiments 89 

Studies of forest influences 89 

Meteorological observations 91 

Forest management studies 92 

Forest protection studies 94 

Protection from grazing damage 95 

Protection from insects and diseases ... 96 

Tree studies 97 

Grazing investigations 98 

Investigations dealing with poisonous plants and 

predatory animals 102 

National Forest utilization experiments . . . 104 
Forest Products Laboratory experiments . .108 

Industrial investigations 116 

III The Protection of the National Forests . . 120 

Protection from Fire 120 

Forest Fire danger on the National Forests . 120 
Importance of fire protection .... . 121 

Causes of forest fires on the National Forests . 124 

Behavior of forest fires 126 

Losses by forest fires on the National Forests 126 

The forest fire problem stated 128 

Fire prevention 129 

Fire suppression 133 

How forest fire funds are distributed . . .134 

Forest fire history 136 

Relation of forest fires to the weather . . .137 
Improvements and equipment for protection . 138 

Forest fire maps and charts 139 

Forest fire organization 140 



CONTENTS lvii 



PAGE 



How fires are located 142 

The fire fighting organization 144 

Forest fire cooperation 146 

Fighting forest fires 147 

Protection Against Trespass, Forest Insects, 

Erosion, and Other Agencies 150 

Trespass 150 

Forest insects 154 

Tree diseases 159 

Water supply 162 

Public health 167 

Violation of game laws 168 

IV The Sale and Rental of National Forest Re- 
sources 170 

The Sale and Disposal of National Forest Timber 170 

Government Timber Sale Policy 171 

Annual yield and cut 172 

Timber reconnoissance 174 

Logging the timber 176 

The first step in purchasing government timber 180 

Procedure in an advertised sale 180 

Timber sale contract clauses 182 

Special contract clauses 184 

When the operation may begin 186 

Marking the timber for cutting 186 

Scaling, measuring, and stamping . . . .188 

Disposal of slash 190 

Payment for timber 192 

Stumpage rates 193 

Cutting period 194 

Readjustment of Stumpage rates . . . .194 
Refunds 194 

The Disposal of timber to Homestead Settlers and 

Under Free Use 195 

Sales to homestead settlers and farmers . . .195 
Free Use 295 

Timber Settlement and Administrative Use . .198 

The Rental of National Forest Range Lands . . 200 



lviii CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Importance of the live-stock industry . . . 200 

Permits issued in 1917 201 

Kinds of range, grazing seasons, and methods 

handling stock 202 

Grazing districts and grazing units .... 205 

Who are entitled to grazing privileges . . . 207 

Grazing permits 211 

Grazing fees 214 

Stock associations 215 

Protective and maximum limits 216 

Prohibition of grazing 218 

Protection of grazing interests 219 

Special Uses 220 

Claims and Settlement 223 

The National Forest Homestead Act . . . 224 

The mining laws 229 

Coal-land laws 230 

Administrative Use of National Forest Lands . 230 
Water Power, Telephone, Telegraph, and Power 

Transmission Lines 230 

Appendix 233 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Figure 1. An observation point for finding forest fires. 
Vigilance is the watchword on the National 
Forests. During 1916 forest officers extin- 
guished 5,655 forest fires. Photo by the au- 
thor Frontispiece 

PACING 
PM3H 

Figure 2. A typical National Forest landscape in the 
high mountains. Potosi Peak, 13,763 feet, 
from Yankee Boy Basin, Uncompahgre Na- 
tional Forest, Ouray County, Colorado . . xviii 

Figure 3. The climate of most of the National Forests 
is severe. This view was taken in the early 
summer and shows the high mountains still 
covered with snow. Most of the National 
Forest lands are therefore of small value for 
agriculture. Photo by Abbey .... xxviii 

Figure 4. On many high mountains on the National 
Forests snow banks persist throughout the 
summer. This view was taken in the latter 
part of August. Lassen National Forest, 
California. Photo by the author . . . xxviii 

Figure 5. The Big Trees. "Mother of the Forest" in 
the background. North Calaveras Grove, 
California xxxii 

Figure 6. A scene on one of the famous National 
Parks. Upper Lake, Glacier National Park, 
Northern Rockies, Montana xxxvi 

Figure 7. The remains of the old boiler house. The 
town once had a sawmill, planing mill, lath 
mill, besides modern conveniences. All these 
lix 



lx ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING 
PAGE 

are now gone after the forests have been cut. 
Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan . xlii 

Figure 8. Deserted houses, abandoned after the saw- 
mill left. These are the remains of what 
was once a prosperous town. Lemiston, 
Montmorency County, Michigan .... xlii 

Figure 9. Forest officers in front of the Forest Super- 
visor's summer headquarters. Note the 
many telephone wires that lead from the of- 
fice. This is 50 miles from the railroad. 
Lassen National Forest, California ... 32 

Figure 10. Scene in front of the Forest Supervisor's 
headquarters. Sheep leaving the National 
Forest summer range in the fall to go to win- 
ter range in the valley. Lassen National 
Forest, California 32 

Figure 11. Forest officers and lumberjacks burning the 
slash resulting from a timber sale. The 
snow on the ground makes the burning less 
dangerous. Washakie National Forest, Wy- 
oming. Photo by the author 38 

Figure 12. Forest officers at a winter timber-cruising 
camp repairing snow shoes. Besides cruis- 
ing the timber, these men make a logging 
map of the government lands, to show how 
the timber can best be taken out. Lassen 
National Forest, California. Photo by the 
author 38 

Figure 13. A forest fire lookout tower on Leek Springs 
Mountain, Eldorado National Forest, Cali- 
fornia 50 

Figure 14. A typical Forest Ranger's headquarters. 
Idlewood Ranger Station, Arapaho National 
Forest, Colorado 52 



ILLUSTRATIONS lxi 

FACING 
PAGE 

Figure 15. A typical view of the National Forest coun- 
try in Montana. Forest Service trail up 
Squaw Peak Patrol Station, Cabinet National 
Forest 54 

Figure 16. Forest Rangers repairing a bridge over a 
mountain stream. Arapaho National For- 
est, Colorado 56 

Figure 17. A forest fire lookout station on the top of 
Lassen Peak, elevation 10,400 feet, Lassen 
National Forest, California. The cabin was 
first erected complete in a carpenter's shop 
in Red Bluff, about 50 miles away. It was 
then taken to pieces and packed to the foot 
of Lassen Peak. On the last two miles of 
its journey it was packed piece by piece on 
forest officers' backs and finally reassembled 
on the topmost pinnacle of the mountain. 
Photo by the author 58 L - 

Figure 18. Forest officers and laborers building a wagon 
road through trap rock. Payette National 
Forest, Idaho 58 

Figure 19. Drying pine cones preparatory to extracting 
the seed. Near Plumas National Forest, 
California 66 

Figure 20. Extracting tree seed from the cones. The 
dried cones are shaken around until the seeds 
drop out through the wire mesh which forms 
the sides of the machine 66 

Figure 21. Preparing the ground with a spring-tooth 
harrow for the broadcast sowing of tree 
seeds. Battlement National Forest, Colo- 
rado. This view was taken at approximately 
10,000 feet elevation. Photo by the author 70 

Figure 22. A local settler delivering a load of Lodge- 
pole pine cones at the seed extractory, for 



lxii ILLUSTRATIONS 



FACING 
PAGE 



which he receives 45 cents per bushel. For- 
est officers receiving them, Arapaho National 
Forest, Colorado 70 

Figure 23. In a forest nursery a trough is often used for 
sowing seeds in drills. The seed scattered 
along the sides of the trough rattles into po- 
sition at the bottom and is more even than 
when distributed by the ordinary worker at 
the bottom of the trough. Pike National 
Forest, Colorado 72 

Figure 24. Uncle Sam grows the little trees by the mil- 
lions. These will soon cover some of the 
bare hillsides on the National Forests of the 
West 72 

Figure 25. One of the largest Forest Service nurseries 
where the young trees are given the utmost 
care before they are large and strong enough 
to endure the rigorous climate of the National 
Forests. McCloud Nursery, Shasta Na- 
tional Forest, California 76 

Figure 26. A view of seed sowing with a corn planter. 

San Isabel National Forest, Colorado . . 78 

Figure 27. Sowing seed along contour lines on the 

slopes. Pike National Forest, Colorado . 78 

Figure 28. A planting crew at work setting out small 
trees. The man ahead digs the hole, and the 
man behind plants the tree. Wasatch Na- 
tional Forest, Utah 82 

Figure 29. At the Fort Valley Forest Experiment Sta- 
tion, Coconino National Forest, Arizona. A 
typical meteorological station. Forest offi- 
cer measuring precipitation. Note the shel- 
ter which contains thermometers and also the 
electrically equipped instruments to record 
the direction and velocity of the wind . . 90 



ILLUSTRATIONS lxiii 

FACING 
PAGE 

Figure 30. Forest officer ascertaining the amount of 
evaporation from a free water surface. Fort 
Valley Forest Experiment Station, Flag- 
staff, Arizona 90 

Figure 31. Forest Ranger with his pack horses traveling 
over his district. Meadow Creek, foot of 
Mt. Wilson, Montezuma National Forest, 
Colorado 102 

Figure 32. A plank of Incense cedar affected by a dis- 
ease known as "pin rot." By cutting the 
cedar timber when it is mature this can be 
largely avoided. Lassen National Forest, 
California. Photo by the author . . . 114 

Figure 33. The western pine forests will some day be a 
great source for naval stores. By distilling 
the crude resin of the Jeffrey pine a light 
volatile oil — abietene — -is secured which has 
great healing and curative properties. Las- 
sen National Forest, California. Photo by 
the author 114 

Figure 34. A forest fire lookout station at the summit of 
Mt. Eddy. Mt. Shasta in the background. 
California 124 

Figure 35. A forest fire lookout station on the summit 
of Brokeoff Mountain, elevation 9,500 feet. 
Lassen National Forest, California. Photo 
by the author 128 

Figure 36. Turner Mountain lookout station, Lassen 
National Forest, California. This is a 10 
ft. by 10 ft. cabin with a stove and with 
folding bed, table, and chairs. The forest 
officer stationed here watches for forest fires 
day and night throughout the fire season. 
Photo by the author 128 

Figure 37. A fire line cut through the low bush-like 
growth of "Chaparral" on the Angeles Na- 



lxiv ILLUSTRATIONS 

PACING 
PAGE 

tional Forest, California. This "Chapar- 
ral" is of great value for regulating stream 
flow. The streams are used for water power, 
domestic purposes, and for irrigating many 
of the largest lemon and orange groves of 
southern California 182 

Figure 38. A forest officers' temporary camp while fight- 
ing forest fires. Near Oregon National For- 
est, Oregon 182 

Figure 39. Putting out a ground fire. Even if the fire 
does not burn the standing timber, it kills the 
young trees and so weakens the larger ones 
that they are easily blown over. Wallowa 
National Forest, Oregon 136 

Figure 40. Forest officers ready to leave a tool box for 
a forest fire in the vicinity. Such tool boxes 
as these are stationed at convenient places 
on National Forests ready for any emer- 
gency. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado 136 

Figure 41. A forest fire on the Wasatch National For- 
est, Utah. Forest officers trying to stop a 
forest fire by cutting a fire line. Note the 
valuable growth of young trees which they 
are trying to save at the right . . . . 140 

Figure 42. A forest fire running in dense underbrush on 

one of the National Forests in Oregon . . 144 

Figure 43. Men in a dense forest with heavy under- 
growth clearing away brush to stop the fire 
as it is running down hill. Crater National 
Forest, Oregon 144 

Figure 44. Fire in a Lodgepole pine forest in Colorado. 

Arapaho National Forest, Colorado . . . 148 

Figure 45. A mountain fire in "Chaparral" five hours 

after it started. Pasadena, California . . 148 



ILLUSTRATIONS lxv 



FACING 
PAGB 



Figure 46. A few years ago this was a green, luxuriant 
forest. Picture taken after the great fires of 
August 20, 1910, on the Coeur d'Alene Na- 
tional Forest near Wallace, Idaho . . . 152 

Figure 47. The first evidence of insect attack are the 
reddish brown pitch tubes on the bark. 
Lodgepole pine infested by the mountain pine 
beetle. Lassen National Forest, California. 
Photo by the author 156 

Figure 48. The last stage of an insect-attacked tree. 
The tree is dead and the dry bark is falling 
off. Lassen National Forest, California. 
Photo by the author 156 

Figure 49. Wrecked farm buildings due to flood of May 
21, 1901, Nolichucky River, near Erwin, 
Tenn. This is one result of denuding the 
Appalachian Mountains of their forest cover 162 

Figure 50. When steep hillsides are stripped of their 
forest growth, erosion results. Erosion has 
been especially serious in the Appalachian 
Mountains. View taken in Madison County, 
North Carolina 162 

Figure 51. A fertile corn-field covered with sand, gravel 
and debris brought down from the moun- 
tains by floods. These farm lands are 
ruined beyond redemption. This could have 
been prevented by preserving the forests on 
the watershed of this river 166 

Figure 52. A view towards Mt. Adams and the head- 
waters of Lewis River. Council Lake in the 
foreground. National Forest lands lie at 
the headwaters of practically every large 
western river. This means that the water 
supply for the western people used for do- 
mestic use, water power, and irrigation is 
being protected from pollution and destruc- 



lxvi 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



PACING 
PAGE 



tion. View taken on the Rainier National 
Forest, Washington 172 

Figure 53. A large storage reservoir used to irrigate 
the ranches in the valley below. Elevation 
10,500 feet. Battlement National Forest, 
Colorado. Photo by the author . . . . 176 

Figure 54. A sheep herder's camp used temporarily by 
Forest Service timber cruisers. Elevation 
about 10,000 feet. Battlement National 
Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author . 176 

Figure 55. View taken in the Coast Range mountains 
of California where Sugar pine and Douglas 
fir are the principal trees. Klamath Na- 
tional Forest, California. Photo by the au- 
thor 



Figure 56. A typical mountain scene in the California 
Coast Range. On these steep slopes a for- 
est cover is of vital importance. Klamath 
National Forest, California. Photo by the 
author 



180 



180 



Figure 57. A forest officer at work on a high mountain 
peak making a plane-table survey and tim- 
ber estimate of National Forest lands. 
Photo by the author 182 

Figure 58. A government timber cruiser's summer camp. 
These cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate 
of Uncle Sam's timber resources at a cost 
of from 2 to 5 cents an acre. Photo by the 
author 182 



Figure 59. Forest officers moving camp while engaged in 
winter reconnoissance work. All food, beds, 
and clothing are packed on 'Alaska" sleds 
and drawn by the men themselves. Photo 
by the author 184 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



lxvii 



FACING 
PAGE 

Figure 60. A winter reconnoissance camp showing 
snow-shoes, skis, "Alaska" sleds, and bull 
hide used to repair the webbing on the snow- 
shoes. Lassen National Forest, California. 
Photo by the author 184 

Figure 61. A group of giant redwoods. Santa Cruz 

County, California 186 

Figure 62. A big Sugar pine tree about six feet in di- 
ameter. This is the most valuable timber 
species in California. Photo by the author 188 

Figure 63. A Western Yellow pine forest in California. 
These trees are from four to six feet in di- 
ameter and from 150 to 200 feet high. Note 
the Forest Service timber cruiser measuring 
the tree at the left. Photo by the author . 188 

Figure 64. Logging in California. Powerful steam en- 
gines pull the logs from the woods to the 
railroad and load them on flat cars. Photo 
by the author 190 

Figure 65. The loaded flat cars reach the saw-mill 
where the logs are unloaded and sawn into 
lumber. During the fiscal year 1917 tim- 
ber sales on the National Forests brought 
into the National Treasury almost $1,700,- 
000.00. Photo by the author .... 190 

Figure 66. Scene in Montana. Forest officers construct- 
ing a telephone line through the Flathead 
National Forest 192 

Figure 67. Forest Ranger, accompanied by a lumber- 
man, marking National Forest timber for cut- 
ting in a timber sale. Coconino National 
Forest, Arizona 192 

Figure 68. An excellent illustration showing the differ- 
ence between unrestricted logging as prac- 
ticed by lumbermen, and conservative log- 



lxviii ILLUSTRATION S 



ging as practiced by the Forest Service. In 
the foreground is the unrestricted logging 
which strips the soil of every stick of tim- 
ber both large and small; in the background 
is the Forest Service logging area which 
preserves the young growth to insure a fu- 
ture supply of timber for the West. Bitter- 
root National Forest, Montana . . . . 194 

Figure 69. View showing the Forest Service method of 
piling the brush and debris after logging, 
and also how stump heights are kept down 
to prevent waste. New Mexico . . . . 196 

Figure 70. A tie-cutting operation on a National For- 
est. These piles of railroad ties are being 
inspected, stamped, and counted by Forest 
rangers. From this point the ties are 
"skidded" to the banks of a stream to be 
floated to the shipping point. Near Evans- 
ton, Wyoming 196 

Figure 71. Brush piles on a cut-over area before burn- 
ing. Forest Service methods aim to clean 
up the forest after logging so that forest 
fires have less inflammable material to feed 
on. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana . 198 

Figure 72. At a time of the year when there is least dan- 
ger from fire the brush piles are burned. 
Missoula National Forest, Montana . . . 198 

Figure 73. Counting sheep as they leave the corral. 
Sheep and cattle are pastured on the Na- 
tional Forests at so many cents per head, 
hence they must be counted before they 
enter in the spring. Wasatch National For- 
est, Utah 208 

Figure 74. Logging National Forest timber. Santa Fe 

National Forest, New Mexico .... 208 



ILLUSTRATIONS lxix 

FACING 

PAOB 

Figure 75. Sheep grazing on the Montezuma National 
Forest at the foot of Mt. Wilson, Colorado. 
Over 7,500,000 sheep and goats grazed on 
the National Forests during the fiscal year 
1917 216 

Figure 76. Grazing cattle on a National Forest in Col- 
orado. Permits were issued during 1917 to 
graze over 2,000,000 cattle, horses, and 
swine on the National Forests . . . . 216 

Figure 77. North Clear Creek Falls, Rio Grande 

National Forest, Colorado. The National 

Forests contain about one-third of all the 

potential water-power resources of the 

, United States 230 

Figure 78. The power plant of the Colorado Power 
Company, on the Grand River, Holy Cross 
National Forest, Colorado. Every fiscal 
year there is a substantial increase in water 
power development on the National Forests 280 

Figure 79. This is only one of the thousands of streams 
in the National Forests of the West ca- 
pable of generating electric power. It has 
been estimated that over 40 per cent, of the 
water resources of the Western States are 
included in the National Forests. Photo by 
the author 232 

Figure 80. View in the famous orange belt of San 
Bernardino County, California. These or- 
chards depend absolutely upon irrigation. 
The watersheds from which the necessary 
water comes are in the National Forests and 
are protected by the Forest Service. Some 
of the smaller watersheds in these mountains 
are said to irrigate orchards valued at $10,- 
000,000 232 



OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 



CHAPTER I 

THE CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 
OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS 

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS WHICH LED TO FOREST 
CONSERVATION 

In order that the reader may fully appreciate the 
gigantic task that has been accomplished in bring- 
ing the National Forest administration and organ- 
ization to its present state of development, it is 
necessary to briefly sketch the conditions that led 
up to the inauguration of the Federal Forest Pol- 
icy before we stop to consider that policy and the 
establishment and organization of National For- 
ests. 

Prodigality Leads Finally to Conservation. 
Every great movement, which has for its object the 
betterment of the lot of mankind, lags far behind 
the times. There must be an actual economic need 
before a new movement can be expected to take 



2 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

root and flourish. Forest conservation had no 
place in the household economy of nations that had 
forests in superabundance. Their forests were 
used with prodigality. It seems to be a great 
human failing to use natural resources lavishly 
when the supply is apparently unlimited, and to 
practice frugality only when the end of a resource 
is in sight. Thus we find in the pages of forestry 
history that all nations have begun to husband their 
forest resources only after having felt the pinch of 
want. In our country history repeats itself and 
our federal policy of forest conservation properly 
begins at the time that the national conscience was 
awakened to the realization that if we did not prac- 
tice economy with our forest resources we would 
some day be without an adequate supply of timber 
and forage, and be confronted with other dangers 
and calamities that follow the destruction of forests. 
The March of Forest Destruction. When the 
London Company settled at Jamestown, Virginia, 
in 1607 it found that unlimited pine and hard- 
wood forests confronted it on every side. Nor did 
these early settlers ever find a way out of this for- 
ested wilderness except by clearings made with the 
ax. When the Pilgrim Fathers landed at Cape 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 3 

Cod in 1620 they found similar forests stretching 
in all directions from their town-site. After the 
Atlantic seaboard became pretty well settled the 
home-builders began moving westward through 
New York, Pennsylvania, and what is now Ohio. 
Still nothing but unbroken, virgin forests were en- 
countered. Westward to the Mississippi civiliza- 
tion advanced and still forests reigned supreme. 
Then the Middle West, the Rocky Mountain re- 
gion, and finally the Pacific Coast regions were set- 
tled. During 140 years civilization has spread from 
coast to coast and of that vast wilderness of forest 
there is left only a remnant here and there. The 
giant pines that sheltered De Soto and his thousand 
followers on their ill-fated expedition in 1541 to the 
Mississippi River have long since disappeared. 
Along the Allegheny and Appalachian ranges the 
vast forests that once harbored the hostile Narra- 
gansetts and Iroquois are now but a memory. The 
giant oak, ash, and cypress forests of the Missis- 
sippi Valley are rapidly being decimated by the big 
saw-mills that work night and day to outdo each 
other. In the north the dense and magnificent for- 
ests of white pine that greeted Father Marquette, 
when he planted his missionary station at Sault Ste. 



4 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

Marie in 1668, have been laid low. Unproductive 
wastes, sandy barrens, and useless underbrush now 
greet the eye. In fact the pine forests which cov- 
ered the greater part of Michigan, Wisconsin, and 
Minnesota have been leveled by the woodman's ax. 
The army of lumbermen has moved now to the 
Coast to again turn virgin timberlands into un- 
productive wastes. 

Thus forest destruction has followed civilization. 
Statistics show very vividly how gradually one 
large lumbering center after another has become 
exhausted, often leaving behind desolation and busi- 
ness depression. In these large centers thriving 
towns sprang up only to disappear again after the 
removal of the forest wealth. In 1850 about 55 
per cent, of the annual cut of lumber came from 
the New England States; even as late as 1865 New 
York furnished more lumber than any State in the 
Union. By 1890 Michigan had reached the zenith 
of its production and in that year the Lake States 
furnished 36 per cent, of the lumber cut. By 1909 
the Southern States had increased their cut to over 
50 per cent, of the total of the country. In 1913 
the cut of the State of Washington was the largest 
ever recorded for that State or for any other State, 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 5 

even outdoing Michigan during its Golden Age. 
In 1915 about 20 per cent, of the cut came from 
the Coast but the South still furnished almost 50 
per cent. 

Our Lumber and Water Supply Imperiled. In 
our prodigal use of our forest resources we have 
become the most lavish users of wood in the world. 
While the annual consumption per capita for 
France is about 25 cubic feet, and that of Germany 
about 40 cubic feet, our per capita consumption is 
in the neighborhood of 250 cubic feet. And the 
most terrible thing about our reckless methods has 
been that we have wasted by crude lumbering meth- 
ods and we have let great forest fires consume many 
times as much lumber as we have used. There have 
been vast public and private losses through unnec- 
essary forest fires which not only consumed mil- 
lions of dollars' worth of timber every year, but 
which also cost the lives of thousands of settlers. 
Then, as every one knows, by being grossly negli- 
gent with our forests, our rivers have visited their 
wrath upon the unfortunate people in the valleys. 
Many streams have become raging torrents in the 
spring and only chains of stagnant pools in the 
summer, thus destroying their value for water 



6 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

power and irrigation. Cotton mills, which for- 
merly used water power all the year round, now 
must depend upon more expensive steam power 
generated by coal to keep their mills running in 
times of water shortage, while during high water 
there is the great danger that the entire factory 
might be swept away. 

THE FIRST STEPS IN FEDERAL FOREST CONSERVATION 

Gradually the national conscience became awak- 
ened to the need of a more rational use of our forest 
resources. But it was not until after the Civil 
War that the first steps were taken. As was to 
be expected, the States in which forest destruction 
had reached its worst stages were the first to at- 
tempt to mend their ways, thus leading the way 
along which the Federal Government was soon to 
follow. 

The Upbuilding of the West. The decade fol- 
lowing the Civil War is marked by the construc- 
tion of some of our great trans-continental rail- 
roads and the consequent development of the great 
western country. In fact between 1865 and 1875 
the railroad mileage of the United States doubled. 
The first trans-continental railroad, the Union 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 7 

Pacific, was completed in 1869. Others soon fol- 
lowed. To encourage construction and settlement 
vast tracts of land were granted to the railroad 
companies by the Government, and with the land 
much valuable timber passed from government 
ownership. After the construction of the railroads 
towns and villages sprang up like mushrooms. As 
was to be expected with this increased development 
the destruction of our forests received an added 
impetus. The Lake States, then the center of 
the lumber industry, began to take alarm at the 
rapidity with which their hillsides were being de- 
nuded. Destructive lumbering, usually followed 
by devastating forest fires, was fast decimating the 
virgin pine forests. The young growth that had 
escaped the lumberman's ax fell a prey to forest 
fires which soon took the form of annual conflagra- 
tions. As the population increased the new sec- 
tions of the country were settled, and as manufac- 
turing operations were extended timber was getting 
higher in price. 

The Lake States First to Act. The first at- 
tempt to remedy the situation was made by the 
State of Wisconsin. In 1867 the Wisconsin legis- 
lature suggested a committee who should report 



8 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

upon the destruction of Wisconsin's forests. The 
next year Michigan took a similar step and in 1869 
the Maine legislature began to look into their wan- 
ing supply by appointing a committee to estimate 
the standing timber of the State. As early as this 
observations and calculations upon the rate of con- 
sumption of lumber pointed to a not far distant 
wood famine. 

The First Federal Steps. The first step taken 
by the federal authorities was at the urgent request 
of the Statistician of the Department of Agricul- 
ture in 1870. At that time lands were recognized 
as being either "improved" or "unimproved" farm 
lands. He recommended that the category of "un- 
improved farm lands" be subdivided into "wood- 
lands" and "other unimproved lands." By thus 
dividing off woodlands from other unimproved 
farm lands more attention was concentrated upon 
the former. This attention was manifested in the 
investigations that followed shortly in which it was 
estimated that 39 per cent, of the area of the coun- 
try was in woodland. This was the first and most 
logical step toward taking an inventory of our for- 
est resources. 

Another early attempt to assist in forest conser- 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 9 

vation was an attempt to reforest the treeless plains 
of our Western States. On March 3, 1873, the 
Timber Culture Act was passed by Congress by 
which the planting to timber of 40 acres of land 
in the treeless territories conferred the title to 160 
acres of public domain. At first this act seemed 
to work out as intended but it did not take very 
many years before it proved a dismal failure. Set- 
tlers had no knowledge of planting trees; the re- 
strictions of the act could not be enforced, and the 
act was open to other abuses. The act was finally 
repealed in 1891. Many similar laws for encour- 
aging the planting of timber were passed by the 
legislatures of some of the Middle Western States, 
but all met with little success. In 1874 Nebraska 
inaugurated Arbor Day. By this act of the legis- 
lature the second Wednesday in April of each year 
was set aside for planting trees. Other States have 
followed the example of Nebraska, so that to-day 
almost every State provides one day in the year 
for planting trees. Thus Arbor Day has become 
practically a national institution. 

The Act of August 16, 1876. The first con- 
structive piece of legislation enacted by the Con- 
gress of the United States was the Act of August 



10 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

16, 1876. This was the first of a series of Acts 
passed by Congress which, although occurring 
many years apart in some cases, put forest conser- 
vation upon a firm basis. Under the first act the 
Commissioner of Agriculture was directed: 

"To appoint some man of approved attainments who is 
practically well acquainted with methods of statistical inquiry 
and who has evinced an intimate acquaintance with ques- 
tions relating to the national wants in regard to timber, to 
prosecute investigations and inquiries with the view of ascer- 
taining the annual amount of consumption, importation, and ex- 
portation of timber and other forest products; the probable 
supply for future wants; the means best adapted to their 
preservation and renewal; the influence of forests upon 
climate and the means that have been successfully applied in 
foreign countries, or that may be deemed applicable in this 
country for the preservation and restoration or planting of 
forests, and to report upon the same to the Commissioner of 
Agriculture, to be by him in a separate report transmitted to 
Congress." 

Dr. Franklin B. Hough, an active, untiring, and 
intelligent scholar, was the first man to be ap- 
pointed by this act. As Commissioner of Forestry 
he prepared the first report and submitted it to Con- 
gress. The next year, in 1877, Congress granted 
its first appropriation of $6,000, "for the purpose of 
obtaining other facts and information preparatory 
to establishing a Division of Forestry." 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 11 

Further* Work Under the Act. The office of 
Commissioner of Forestry gradually enlarged the 
scope of its duties and functions. Five years later, 
due to the ever-increasing importance of the sub- 
ject, a distinct division, the Division of Forestry, 
was established in the Department of Agriculture. 
The duties and powers of this Division were "to de- 
vote itself exclusively to such investigations of the 
subject as would tend to the fullest development 
of the resources of the country in that respect, to 
discover the best methods of managing and pre- 
serving our waning forests and to maintain in all its 
bearings the universal interest involved in that in- 
dustry." 

In 1881 an agent of the Department was 
sent to Europe to study the work of forestry 
there. In 1882 the American Forestry Congress 
was organized. This organization had for its ob- 
ject the discussion and dissemination of the import- 
ant facts of forestry, and while strictly a private 
body, had a considerable influence in later years in 
educating the people to the needs of forestry and 
in helping to establish a rational forest policy in 
the United States. Its first meeting took place in 
Cincinnati. At a second meeting held the same 



12 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

year in Montreal the name was changed to the 
American Forestry Association and since then has 
been the center of all private efforts to advance 
the forestry movement. In 1898 this association 
began the publication of a propagandist journal 
which is now called American Forestry. In 
1884 the duty of making experiments with timber 
was added to the functions of the Division. The 
next year the collecting and distribution of valuable 
economic tree seeds was begun. In 1886 the study 
of the biology of some of our important timber 
trees was taken up, while in the following year 
silvicultural problems first engaged the attention 
of the Division. 

THE FIRST FOREST RESERVES ESTABLISHED MARCH 30, 

1891 

The Situation Before 1891. Before 1891 the 
Division of Forestry was simply a bureau of in- 
formation. In general the information supplied 
was of a twofold nature. It was technical in so 
far as it related to the management of private 
woodlands and statistical in so far as the knowl- 
edge of the conditions of our forest resources in- 
duced the application of forestry principles. Up 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 13 

to that date Congress had neither appropriated 
enough money for efficient outdoor work nor did 
she attempt to put any government woodlands un- 
der the control of the Division. Therefore there 
had been no management because there were no 
forests to manage. This one-sided development 
of the forestry work of the Division was greatly 
impeding a rational development of the forest con- 
servation movement. 

The Need of a Forest Policy. The need for a 
well-defined forest policy with respect to the gov- 
ernment forest lands now began to be felt. Rail- 
road land grants, the Homestead Act, Preemption 
claims, and the Timber and Stone Act were taking 
much valuable timberland out of government own- 
ership. People secured claims under these acts 
merely for the timber that was on them. The pur- 
poses of the laws and acts of Congress were being 
fraudulently evaded. Also the Government had 
restrictive and protective laws in regard to its lands, 
but it could not enforce them on account of lack 
of appropriations with which to maintain an ad- 
ministrative and protective organization. The time 
was now ripe for an executive policy to manage 
the woodlands that still remained in the possession 



14 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

of the Government before it was too late to save 
what was left. 

The Act of March 3, 1891. The Division of For- 
estry was designed by the nature of its duties to 
be more than a bureau of information. The exist- 
ence of a governmental department to promulgate 
forestry principles while the Government itself had 
made no provision to apply such principles to its 
own permanent timberlands was an incongruity 
that suggested further legislative action. This 
was in part supplied by the law of March 3, 
1891, which conferred upon the President the power 
to establish Forest Reservations. The first exercise 
of power under this act was the presidential procla- 
mation creating the Yellowstone Park Timber 
Land Reserve under President Harrison on March 
30, 1891. This was probably the wisest step yet 
taken in the development of a National Forest 
policy ; but, unfortunately, the act left the Division 
simply a bureau of information as it was before. 

AN ANOMALOUS CONDITION — FOREST RESERVES WITH- 
OUT FOREST ADMINISTRATION 

The Need of Administration on the Reserves. 
At first thought it will be seen that this piece of 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 15 

legislation must necessarily remain inoperative un- 
less it were followed by the establishment of a 
proper administration of the Reserves based upon 
sound forestry principles. Furthermore, the law 
withdrew from public use all such lands that 
might be acquired under it. It was now easy for 
the Government to acquire lands ; the question that 
next presented itself was how to protect and regu- 
late the use of these new acquisitions. Forest pro- 
tection cannot be secured without forest rangers 
and forest guards ; nor forest management without 
technical foresters. The very reasons for estab- 
lishing the Reserves would point to the absolute 
need of a system of managing them. These rea- 
sons were briefly: 

"to prevent annual conflagrations; to prevent useless de- 
struction of life and property by fires, etc.; to provide benefit 
and revenue from the sale of forest products, fuels, and 
timbers; to administer this resource for future benefit; to in- 
crease the stock of game; to promote the development of the 
country; to give regular employment to a professional staff; 
to secure continuous supplies of wood and to get the maximum 
amount of good from each acre." 

Such arguments as these assume the presence of a 
force of men to protect and administrate these 
Reserves. 



16 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

More Reserves Created. In spite of this serious 
fault in the Act of March 3, 1891, more Forest 
Reservations were created. By 1894 Presidents 
Harrison and Cleveland had created about 17,500,- 
000 acres and on a single day, February 22, 1897, 
President Cleveland proclaimed over 20,000,000 
acres. By the close of 1897 a total of almost 40,- 
000,000 acres of Forest Reserves had been estab- 
lished. 

During the six years following the law giving the 
President power to establish Reserves, the Reserves 
were under the jurisdiction of the General Land 
Office. The appropriations of Congress were 
small, amounting to less than $30,000 annually. 
Such appropriations were used mainly for testing 
timber strength and the conditions affecting quality. 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE RESERVES UNDER THE 
GENERAL LAND OFFICE 

The Act of June 4, 1897. The Secretary of the 
Interior in 1896 requested the National Academy 
of Sciences, the legally constituted advisor of the 
Government in scientific matters, to investigate, re- 
port upon, and recommend a National Forest pol- 
icy. This resulted in the Act of June 4, 1897, 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 17 

under which, with subsequent amendments, the Na- 
tional Forests are now being administered. Under 
this act the Reserves remained in the hands of the 
General Land Office, Department of the Interior. 
It charged this office with the administration and 
protection of the Forest Reservations. Later the 
Geological Survey was charged with surveying and 
mapping them, and the Division of Forestry was 
asked to give technical advice. It is very evident 
that the Division of Forestry containing all the 
trained scientific staff had no relation to the govern- 
ment forestry work except as the offices of the De- 
partment of the Interior might apply for assistance 
or advice. It is true that an important step had 
been taken, but the complete separation of the ad- 
ministration by the General Land Office and the 
force of trained men in the Division of Forestry was 
a serious defect. 

\The Act of June 4 might be called the Magna 
Charta of national forestry. The U. S. Geological 
Survey undertook the task of surveying, classify- 
ing, and describing the Forest Reservations. At a 
cost of about one and one-half million dollars over 
70,000,000 acres of Forest Reserves were mapped 
and described. The General Land Office undertook 



18 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

the administration and Forest Superintendents and 
Rangers were appointed to take charge of the 
Reservations. The rules and regulations for ad- 
ministering the Reserves were formulated by the 
Commissioner of the General Land Office. 

The Division of Forestry in 1898. On July 1, 
1898, the Division of Forestry employed 11 per- 
sons, 6 clerical and 5 scientific. There were also 
some collaborators and student assistants. There 
was no field equipment and no field work. But in 
the fall of 1898 an important step was taken. 
From that time on the Division of Forestry offered 
practical assistance to forest owners and thus it 
shifted its field of activity from the desk to the 
woods. The lumbermen were met on their own 
grounds and actual forest management for purely 
commercial ends was undertaken by well known 
lumbermen. From that time dates the solution of 
specific problems of forest management and the 
development of efficient methods of attacking them. 
The work of the Division at this time, therefore, 
consisted of activities along 4 distinct lines: (1) 
that of working plans, (2) that of economic tree 
planting, (3) that of special investigations, and (4) 
that of office work. Thus it will be seen, even at 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 19 

this late date the Division had practically nothing to 
say about the scientific forestry methods which 
should be used on the Reservations. 

The Bureau of Forestry. In 1901 the Division 
of Forestry was raised to the rank of a Bureau, but 
this was a change in name only and carried with 
it no change in the handling of the Government's 
vast forest resources. 

THE CONSOLIDATION OF THE FORESTRY WORK IN 
THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN 1905 

The Act of February 1, 1905. The necessity of 
consolidating the various branches of government 
forest work became apparent and was urged upon 
Congress by President Roosevelt and by the execu- 
tive officers concerned. This was finally accom- 
plished by the act of February 1, 1905, by which 
entire jurisdiction over the Forest Reserves was 
transferred to the Secretary of Agriculture. Mat- 
ters of surveying and passage of title, however, 
were still kept under the jurisdiction of the Gen- 
eral Land Office. By this act the Division of For- 
estry for the first time in its career became an ad- 
ministrative organization. On July 1 of the same 
year the Bureau of Forestry became the Forest 



20 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

Service and in 1907 the change of name from "For- 
est Reserves" to "National Forests" was made to 
correct the impression that the forests were like 
reserves which had been withdrawn from use. 

Early Forestry Education and Literature. The 
Act of February 1, 1905, was the final step which 
established the federal policy with regard to our 
National Forests. At this stage it will be interest- 
ing to note briefly the status of the science of Amer- 
ican Forestry and of forestry education. As late 
as the spring of 1898 there was no science or liter- 
ature on American Forestry, nor could education 
in the subject be procured in the country. But 
soon thereafter several forestry schools were estab- 
lished, namely, Cornell Forestry School in 1898, 
Yale School of Forestry and Biltmore Forest 
School in 1899, and the University of Michigan 
Forestry School in 1903. The beginning of the 
twentieth century saw the first professional forest- 
ers graduated and taking upon themselves the task 
of applying scientific forestry methods to the Na- 
tional Forests. Further evidence of the growth of 
the profession of forestry was the organization of 
the Society of American Foresters in 1900. The 
first professional journal was started in 1902 as the 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 21 

Forestry Quarterly, and other scientific forestry- 
literature was issued by the Government. The 
scientific knowledge gathered in the field work 
since 1898 has taken the form of a rapidly growing 
literature on the subject which has formed the basis 
of the science of American Forestry. 

Changes in the Forest Service Personnel. By 
1905 the work of the Forest Service had increased 
to such an extent that the number of employees 
was increased to 821. With the opening of the for- 
estry schools, professional foresters became avail- 
able and the National Forests then began to be put 
into the hands of expert scientific men. Gradually 
the old type of untrained, non-scientific woodsman 
is being replaced by the trained forester. In ad- 
dition, the entire force was made a part of the clas- 
sified Civil Service and the plan of political ap- 
pointees was banished forever. 

More National Forests Created. While the ad- 
ministration of the National Forests was being ad- 
justed the area of National Forests was constantly 
being increased. To the 40,000,000 acres of Re- 
serves set aside by Presidents Harrison and Cleve- 
land before 1897, President McKinley added over 
7,000,000 acres until 1901. When Roosevelt be- 



22 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

came President the National Forest policy received 
an added impetus and vigor. Being a great lover 
of the out-of-door-life and being especially well ac- 
quainted, on account of his extensive travels, with 
the great western country, President Roosevelt 
threw his powerful influence into the balance. 
With the close cooperation of Mr. Gifford Pinchot, 
his warm personal friend, and at that time the Chief 
Forester, Mr. Roosevelt set aside between 1901 and 
1909 over 148,000,000 acres of National Forests, 
more than three times as much as had been set aside 
by all his predecessors together. Since 1909 a care- 
ful adjustment of the boundaries has been going on, 
both Presidents Taft and Wilson adding small 
areas here and there, which were found valuable 
for forestry purposes, or eliminating small areas 
found to have no value. Acts of Congress passed 
since 1907 prohibit the addition by the President 
to the National Forests already established in 
Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Montana, 
Wyoming, and Colorado. Additions can be made 
in these States only by special act of Congress. A 
number of such acts have been passed ; some of them 
upon petitions of the people in these States. 

The Growth of the Forest Service. The growth 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 23 

of the Forest Service between 1897 and 1917 is 
little short of marvelous. The number of its em- 
ployees has increased from 61 in 1898 to 3,544 on 
June 30, 1917. The annual appropriations have 
increased from less than $30,000 in 1897 to $5,712,- 
275 for the fiscal year 1918. But besides this ap- 
propriation for 1918 the Weeks Law calls for an 
expenditure of $2,100,000 and the Federal Aid 
Road Act for $1,000,000 more. The receipts of 
the National Forests have also increased by leaps 
and bounds. In 1897 the receipts were practically 
negligible in amount but by 1906 they had reached 
approximately $800,000. In the fiscal year 1917 
they were more than $3,457,000. 

Recent Modifications in the Organization. Fur- 
ther slight modifications in the organization, as es- 
tablished in 1905, were made since that date. Be- 
fore 1908 all the work of the Forests was supervised 
from the main office in Washington and this ar- 
rangement caused much delay and inconvenience 
in carrying on the business of the Forests. In the 
fall of 1908 six administrative districts were estab- 
lished, to which another was added in 1914. By 
this arrangement the National Forests are divided 
into 7 groups and each group has a district head- 



24 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

quarters in a large city or town centrally located 
in the group. The District Office acts as sort of 
clearing house for all National Forest business. 
All matters in the administration and protection of 
the National Forests that cannot be settled on the 
Forest or appear to be of general importance to 
the district are taken to the District Office, which 
is in charge of a District Forester and several as- 
sistants. Beginning in 1909 Forest Experiment 
Stations were established in each district and in 
1910 the Forest Products Laboratory, the first one 
of its kind in the world, was formally opened at 
Madison, Wisconsin. The Weeks Law, passed on 
March 1, 1911, provides for the acquisition of for- 
est lands on the watersheds of navigable streams in 
the Appalachian and White Mountains. Up to 
June 30, 1917, over 1,500,000 acres have been ap- 
proved for purchase in these mountains. The 
Pisgah National Forest in North Carolina was 
recently organized from purchased lands. 

THE PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF THE FOREST SERVICE 

The Administrative Districts. The administra- 
tion of the National Forests and the conduct of all 
matters relating to forestry which have been placed 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 25 

upon the Department of Agriculture are in charge 
of the Forester whose office is in Washington, D. C. 
To facilitate the administration of the Forests 7 
districts have been established with headquarters in 
the following places : 

District 1. (Montana, northeastern Washington, northern 
Idaho, and northwestern South Dakota) Mis- 
soula, Montana. 

District 2. (Colorado, Wyoming, the remainder of South 
Dakota, Nebraska, northern Michigan, and 
northern Minnesota) Denver, Colorado. 

District 3. (Most of Arizona and New Mexico) Albuquerque, 
New Mexico. 

District 4. (Utah, southern Idaho, western Wyoming, eastern 
and central Nevada, and northwestern Arizona) 
Ogden, Utah. 

District 5. (California and western Nevada) San Francisco, 
California. 

District 6. (Washington, Oregon, and Alaska) Portland, 
Oregon. 

District 7. (Arkansas, Florida, Oklahoma, and the newly pur- 
chased areas in South Carolina, Georgia, North 
Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, 
New Hampshire, Maine, and Alabama,) Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

Each administrative district embraces a number of 
National Forests and is in charge of a Forest officer 
known as the District Forester who is responsible to 
the Forester for all administrative and technical 



26 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

work performed within the district. Each District 
Forester is aided by several assistants and by spe- 
cialists in various lines of work. Each National 
Forest is in charge of a Forest Supervisor who may 
have a Deputy and a Forest Assistant or Forest 
Examiner to assist him if the amount of business on 
a National Forest warrants it. Each National 
Forest is subdivided into Ranger districts for the 
purpose of facilitating the protection work. Each 
Ranger district is in charge of a Ranger who may 
be assisted by other Rangers or Forest Guards. 

The Washington Office. The work of the For- 
est Service in Washington is organized under the 
Office of Forester and the Branches of Operation, 
Lands, Silviculture, Research, Grazing, Engineer- 
ing, and Acquisition of lands under the Weeks Law. 
The Office of Forester includes the Associate For- 
ester, the Editor, the Dendrologist, the Chief of 
Accounts, besides Inspectors and Lumbermen. 
The Branch of Operation administers and super- 
vises the business organization of the Forest Service 
and has general supervision of the personnel, quar- 
ters, equipment, and supplies of the Service and all 
the fire protection and permanent improvement 
work on the National Forests. The Branch of 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 27 

Lands examines and. classifies lands in the Forests 
to determine their value for forest purposes, con- 
ducts the work in connection with claims on the For- 
ests prior to proceedings before United States reg- 
isters and receivers, and assists the Chief Engineer 
of the Service in handling matters in connection 
with the occupation and use of the National Forest 
lands for hydro-electric power purposes. The 
Branch of Silviculture supervises the sale and cut- 
ting of timber on the National Forests and cooper- 
ates with States in protecting forest lands under 
Section 2 of the Weeks Law. The Branch of Re- 
search has supervision over the investigative work 
of the Service, including silvicultural studies, 
studies of state forest conditions, investigations of 
the lumber and wood-using industries and lumber 
prices, and the investigative work carried on at the 
Forest Products Laboratory and the Forest Ex- 
periment Stations. The Branch of Grazing super- 
vises the grazing of live stock upon the National 
Forests, allotting grazing privileges and dividing 
the ranges between different owners and classes of 
stock. It is also charged with the work of improv- 
ing depleted grazing lands and of cooperating with 
the Federal and state authorities in the enforce- 



28 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

ment of stock quarantine regulations. The Branch 
of Engineering has to do with the proper designing 
and planning of roads, trails, and bridges ; with the 
engineering problems involved in granting permits 
to hydro-electric plants in the Forests ; and with the 
making of forest maps, surveys, improving the for- 
est atlas, and other drafting work. The Branch of 
Acquisition of Lands under the Weeks Law has 
charge of examining and evaluating such lands 
which are offered for purchase and recommending 
suitable lands for purchase under the act. 

The District Offices. Each District Office (of 
which there are 7) is organized in the main along 
the same lines as the Washington office. Each 
Branch in the Washington office is represented in 
the District Office by an Assistant District Forester 
or some similar official. The Office of the District 
Forester has in addition the Office of Solicitor 
(Forest Service Branch), which is in charge of an 
assistant to the Solicitor of the Department of 
Agriculture. He is the advisor to the District For- 
ester in all matters of law which arise in the ad- 
ministration of the National Forests. His opin- 
ions are usually binding except that, in urgent cases, 
appeal may be taken to the Solicitor of the Depart- 



WASHINGTON OFFICE 

Forester 

Associate Forester 



organized under the Branches of 1 



Accounts Operation Silviculture Grazing Lands | Research|Engineering Acquisition 



7 DISTRICTS 

each with district 

headquarters in 

charge of a 



DISTRICT FORESTER 



with assistants in charge 
of offices of 



Law 



Accounts 



Operation 



Silviculture 
Pathologist 



Grazing 



Lands 



Engineering 



Products 



Experiment 
Stations 



147 NATIONAL FORESTS 



each in charge of 
a 



FOREST SUPERVISOR 



with one or more assistants: 



[Deputy Supervisor J Forest Assistant | Forest Examiner 



Each National Forest divided into 

from 5-10 ranger districts each in 

charge of a Forest Ranger 



Forest Ranger 
District # 1 



Forest Ranger 
District *2 



Forest Ranger 
District # 3 



Forest Ranger 
District # 4 



Forest Ranger 
District # 5 



CREATION AND ORGANIZATION 29 

merit at Washington through the Forester. Many 
cases of law arise on the National Forests such as 
cases of timber, fire, and grazing trespass. All 
these are handled in the Office of the District For- 
ester. The Office of Accounts in the districts is 
in charge of the District Fiscal Agent who is an 
assistant to the Chief of Accounts in the Washing- 
ton Office. Three of the districts have a Branch 
of Products. The Experiment Stations in the dis- 
tricts are under the supervision of the District For- 
ester and the men in charge of them bear the same 
relation to the District Office as the Supervisor of a 
National Forest. Most of the districts also have 
in the Office of Silviculture a Consulting Patholo- 
gist who has charge of all problems relating to tree 
diseases. 

The following scheme will illustrate in a general 
way the organization of the Forest Service and 
show how the National Forests are administered at 
the present time : 



CHAPTER II 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE 
NATIONAL FORESTS 

Under the head of administration we must neces- 
sarily understand those factors which are essential 
to carry on the business of the National Forests. 
First of all we must consider the personnel, that is, 
the men that make up the organization by means of 
which the work on the Forests is done. Next we 
must learn how the money for this large enterprise 
is appropriated each year to carry on the work, 
and how it is divided up so that each National For- 
est gets an amount each year in proportion to its 
needs. Then again men and money are of little 
avail without tools, equipment, and supplies. The 
proper distribution of these to the 147 National 
Forests is no small business organization in itself. 
Lastly we must learn of the many permanent im- 
provements which are made on the National For- 
ests which are absolutely necessary for their proper 
administration, protection and use. No large con- 

30 



ADMINISTRATION 31 

structive forestry enterprise is complete without 
these. They consist of the construction of means 
of transportation, means of communication, and 
living quarters for the personnel; of extensive 
planting of young trees to reestablish forests which 
have been destroyed by fires ; the carrying on of re- 
search and experiments to aid in the development 
of the best methods of forestry; and the classifica- 
tion and segregation of agricultural lands and the 
establishment of permanent boundaries. All these 
matters must necessarily be considered before we 
attempt to learn about the protection and the utili- 
zation of the National Forests. 

PERSONNEL 

Duties of Forest Officers. Forest officers are the 
servants of the people and they are expected to 
assist in every way possible those who wish to use 
the Resources of the Forests. Their first duty is to 
enforce the regulations under which all permits, 
leases, sales, and rentals are made. These regula- 
tions cover every phase of National Forest activity 
and in conducting business under them they must 
not let personal or other interests weigh against the 
good of the Forests. For the good of the Forest 



32 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

Service their conduct must be prompt and courte- 
ous and their business methods sensible and effect- 
ive. They make it their business to prevent mis- 
understandings and violations of forest regulations 
rather than to correct mistakes after they have been 
made. 

On the National Forests there are permanent 
employees and temporary employees. Under the 
former heading come the Forest Supervisor, the 
Deputy Supervisor, the Forest Assistant, the For- 
est Ranger, Lumbermen, Scalers, Planting Assist- 
ants, and Forest Clerks. Under the latter cate- 
gory come the Forest Guards, the Field Assistants, 
and the Temporary Laborers. All permanent 
positions are in the classified Civil Service. Va- 
cancies are filled from a certified list of those who 
have passed a Civil Service examination or by pro- 
motion from the lower ranks. 

The Forest Supervisor. A Forest Supervisor is 
in charge of each National Forest and he plans the 
work of the Forest and supervises its execution. 
He works, of course, under direct instruction from 
the District Forester and is responsible to him. 
When the amount of business on the Forest war- 
rants it he is assisted by a Deputy Supervisor. 




Figure 9. Forest officers in front of the Forest Supervisor's sum- 
mer headquarters. Note the many telephone wires that lead from 
the office. This is 50 miles from the railroad. Lassen National For- 
est, California. 

Figure 10. Scene in front of the Forest Supervisor's headquarters. 
Sheep leaving the National Forest summer range in the fall to go to 
winter range in the valley. Lassen National Forest, California. 



ADMINISTRATION 33 

Both these positions are filled by the promotion of 
experienced men in the classified Civil Service. 
The Forest Supervisor's headquarters are located 
in towns conveniently situated with regard to the 
most important points in his Forest. The town is 
usually located on a railroad and centrally located 
with regard to the various Ranger districts of his 
Forest. His headquarters are usually the center 
of the system of roads and trails which covers his 
entire Forest. From his office also the telephone 
system radiates in all directions to his various 
District Rangers. In short, the Forest Supervisor's 
office is so situated that he has at all times full 
knowledge of all the activities of his Forest; he is 
therefore in a position to give advice and directions 
by telephone to his Rangers and other subordinates 
almost at any time of the day or night. Such inti- 
mate communication is of especial importance dur- 
ing the fire season. 

Some Forests have two headquarters, one that 
is occupied in the winter and the other that is occu- 
pied in the summer. The summer quarters is usu- 
ally most advantageously situated as far as the busi- 
ness of the Forest is concerned, but owing to deep 
snow, which seriously interferes with mail and tele- 



34 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

phone connections, a more accessible winter quar- 
ters is occupied from October to May. 

The force of men the Forest Supervisor has 
working under him varies of course with the amount 
of work to be performed. The permanent force is 
usually from 10 to 15 men, which during the fire 
season may be increased to from 25 to 40 and in 
cases of great fire emergency sometimes to several 
hundred men, by the addition of temporary em- 
ployees. 

The Forest Assistant. The other permanent 
men on a National Forest are the Forest Assistant 
or Forest Examiner, Forest Rangers, and a Forest 
clerk with his assistant, the Stenographer and Type- 
writer. The Forest Assistant or Examiner ranks 
next to the Deputy and his work is directed by the 
Forest Supervisor, to whom he makes his reports. 
The Forest Assistant is the technical man of the 
Forest force, who upon making good is promoted to 
Forest Examiner. He is employed upon such tech- 
nical lines of work as the examination and mapping 
of forest areas ; reports on applications for the pur- 
chase of timber; marking, scaling, and managing 
timber sales ; the survey of boundaries ; and nursery 
and planting work. 



ADMINISTRATION 35 

Not only is a Forest Assistant called upon to 
perform these various lines of technical work. The 
very nature of the country he is in indicates that he 
must be an all-round practical man. He must be 
able to ride, pack, and drive. He must often live 
alone and therefore must do his own cooking, wash- 
ing, and take care of other personal needs. He 
must be strong and healthy and capable of under- 
going hardships, at least be able to stand long days 
of walking, climbing, and horseback riding. His 
various duties and the different situations that arise 
often call for knowledge and practical ability as a 
carpenter, a mechanic, a plumber, an engineer, a 
surveyor, and many other lines of work. Perhaps 
more important than his education and ability are 
his personal qualifications. His temperament must 
be such that he must feel satisfied and contented 
under the most trying conditions. He must be able 
to do without most of the comforts of modern civ- 
ilization for most of the time. For these reasons 
the country-bred western youths are more liable to 
make a success of the work than the city-bred east- 
erner. 

The Forest Ranger. The Forest Ranger's posi- 
tion is one of the most important and at the same 



36 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

time the most difficult positions on our National 
Forests. 

The Forest Ranger's headquarters are usually at 
the nearest business center to his district and if that 
is not practicable permanent headquarters are pro- 
vided on the Forest. In any case his station is lo- 
cated as near to the center of the business activity 
of his district as possible. If his headquarters 
are centrally located in his district, trails, roads, and 
telephone lines lead out from his cabin to all parts 
of his district. His station is built and maintained 
at government expense and usually has, besides 
his living quarters, a barn, tool-house, pasture, cor- 
ral, and other necessary improvements. 

The Forest Ranger performs such routine work 
as the supervision of timber sales, grazing, free use, 
special use, and other contracts and permits, the 
carrying out of the protection and improvement 
plans for his district, and other administrative 
duties. The average Forest Ranger has a terri- 
tory of from 75,000 to 150,000 acres to take care 
of. On June 30, 1917, there were about 1,100 
Forest Rangers employed on the National Forests 
who were assisted by over 900 Assistant Forest 
Rangers and Forest Guards. The protective force 



ADMINISTRATION 37 

was therefore about one man for every 77,800 acres 
or about 121 square miles. 

The Forest Ranger must be a man who is physi- 
cally sound and capable of enduring great hard- 
ships. He is often required to do heavy manual 
labor in fighting fire under the most trying condi- 
tions. For this reason he must have great endur- 
ance. They are usually men who have been 
brought up in timber work, on ranches or farms, or 
with the stock business. They are therefore thor- 
oughly familiar with the region in which they are 
to be employed and especially acquainted with the 
rough, semi-primitive life which is characteristic of 
remote places in the West. 

He must be able to take care of himself and his 
horses in regions remote from settlement and sup- 
plies. He must be able to build trails, roads and 
cabins ; he must be able to ride, pack, and drive and 
deal tactfully with all classes of people. He must 
know something about land surveying, estimating, 
and scaling timber ; of logging, mining laws, and the 
live stock business. His duties include patrol to 
prevent fire and trespass; estimating, surveying, 
and marking timber ; the supervision of cutting and 
similar work. He is authorized to issue permits, 



38 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

build cabins and trails, oversee grazing business, 
investigate mining and agricultural claims, report 
upon applications, and report upon and arrest for 
the violation of Forest laws and regulations. 

The Forest Clerk. The Forest Clerk performs 
the clerical work and the book-keeping in the Forest 
Supervisor's office. He sometimes has a Stenogra- 
pher and Typewriter to assist him and to do the 
mechanical work of correspondence. Lumbermen 
are specialists who are thoroughly well versed in all 
that pertains to logging, milling, scaling, and cruis- 
ing timber. They are assigned temporarily to For- 
ests where need for their work arises. Scalers are 
men thoroughly familiar with the art of scaling or 
measuring logs, ties, poles, cordwood and other for- 
est products. Planting Assistants are specialists 
in nursery and planting work. Their duties in- 
clude the preparation of seed beds, seed sowing, 
transplanting and care of seedlings, and field plant- 
ing. They are assigned to the Forest Service nur- 
series. 

Temporary Laborers, Forest Guards, and Field 
Assistants are employed during the field season 
when additional work on the National Forests war- 
rants it. Forest Guards perform temporary 




'f r. 




The Work of Forest Officers ik the Winter 

Figure 11. Forest officers ;ind lumberjacks burning the slash re- 
sulting from a timber sale. The snow on the ground makes the burn- 
ing less dangerous. Washakie National Forest, Wyoming. Photo by 
the author. 

Figure IQ. Forest officers at a winter timber-cruising camp re- 
pairing snow shoes. Besides cruising the timber, these men make a 
logging map of the government lands, to show how the timber can 
best be taken out. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by 
the author. 



ADMINISTRATION 39 

protection, administrative, and improvement work; 
Field Assistants, usually students of forestry serv- 
ing their apprenticeships, are usually employed at 
minor technical work and timber cruising; Tempo- 
rary Laborers are employed by the day or month at 
any kind of improvement or maintenance work. 

Forest Service Meetings. A general meeting of 
the Forest force is usually held annually to give the 
Forest officers the benefit of each other's experience, 
to keep in touch with the entire work of the Forest, 
and to promote "esprit-de-corps." The time and 
place of the meeting depends upon circumstances, 
but it is usually held at a time of the year when 
there is least danger from fire. Often joint meet- 
ings are held with the forces of adjacent Forests. 
This annual meeting idea is carried through the en- 
tire Forest Service. The Forest Supervisors in 
each administrative district usually meet at the 
district headquarters once a year and the District 
Foresters of all the districts together with repre- 
sentative officers from the Washington office usu- 
ally meet annually at some centrally located dis- 
trict office such as the one at Ogden, Utah. These 
meetings assist greatly in keeping all the work in 
the various branches of the Service up to the same 



40 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

standard of efficiency, in avoiding mistakes by- 
learning the experience of others, and in correlating 
and summarizing work done on similar problems in 
widely different regions. 

HOW THE FOREST SERVICE APPROPRIATION IS 
ALLOTTED TO THE NATIONAL FORESTS 

It is, indeed, a great task to distribute the money 
that is each year appropriated by Congress for the 
Forest Service so that the Washington Office, the 
District Offices, and the 147 National Forests each 
get their just share and so that each dollar buys the 
greatest amount of good for the whole people with- 
out extravagance or waste. To do this a large or- 
ganization has been built up composed of business 
men who have absolutely no selfish interest at heart 
and among whom graft or favoritism is unknown 
and unheard of. It may be said without exaggera- 
tion that the business of the National Forests is on 
a thoroughly sound and efficient basis. 

Forest Service Expenses. While for reasons al- 
ready spoken of, the cash receipts are considerably 
below the expenses for running the Forests, the 
rapidly increasing system of roads, trails and tele- 
phone lines points not only to a constantly increas- 



ADMINISTRATION 41 

ing use and service to the public but also as a conse- 
quence to increased financial returns. 

The expenses of the Forest Service on the Na- 
tional Forests are of a two-fold character. There 
are costs of administration and protection on the 
one hand which might be called ordinary running 
expenses, and the costs of improvements, reforesta- 
tion, and forest investigations on the other. The 
latter are really in the nature of investments, and 
do not properly fall into the category of operating 
costs. Yet they are absolutely necessary to the 
welfare of the Forests. They comprise expendi- 
tures for roads, trails, telephone lines, and similar 
improvements, the establishment of forests by the 
planting of young trees which have been destroyed 
by past fires, the carrying on of research and ex- 
periments to aid in the development of the best 
methods of forestry, and expenses connected with 
the classification and segregation of agricultural 
lands in the Forests. The establishment of per- 
manent boundaries and the cost of making home- 
stead and other surveys are also in the nature of 
investments. Such expenditures may be looked 
upon as money deposited in the bank to bear inter- 
est ; they will not bring direct financial returns now 



42 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

but will produce great revenue many years hence. 

The Agricultural Appropriation Bill. The fis- 
cal year in the Forest Service extends from July 
1 of one year to June 30 of the next. Every 
year, in the Agricultural Appropriation Bill that 
comes before Congress, there is an appropriation 
for the Forest Service for its work. This appropri- 
ation is not in a lump sum but by allotments or 
funds. There is the fund for Fire Fighting, one 
for General Expenses, another for Statutory Sal- 
aries, another for Improvements, another for Emer- 
gency Fire conditions, and usually there are special 
appropriations for various purposes. For the fis- 
cal year 1918 (extending from July 1, 1917, to June 
30, 1918) there are special appropriations for Land 
Classification, for purchasing land under the Weeks 
Law, for cooperative fire protection under the 
Weeks Law, and for the Federal Aid Road Act. 

The Ranger's Protection and Improvement 
Plans. Long before this bill reaches Congress 
every Forest Ranger on every National Forest, 
every Forest Supervisor, and every Branch of the 
Washington and the District Offices have been esti- 
mating how much money they will need to carry 
out the plans proposed for the next fiscal year. 



ADMINISTRATION 43 

Each Forest Ranger works and studies over his 
plans for the next year with which he hopes to pro- 
tect his district from fire. He plans and figures 
out what improvements are urgently necessary to 
make the remote parts of his district more accessi- 
ble. He tries to arrive at a safe estimate of the 
cost of so many miles of trails, roads, and telephone 
lines, so many cabins, barns, corrals, etc., which he 
thinks are absolutely essential to the proper admin- 
istration of his district, and he estimates the number 
of Forest Guards, lookout men, and patrol men he 
will need for the protection of his territory. Usu- 
ally these items are summed up under his annual 
Improvement Plan and his Protection Plan re- 
spectively. 

The Supervisor's Plans. When the Forest Su- 
pervisor receives such estimates and plans from each 
of his Forest Rangers he studies them over care- 
fully and tries to decide in an impartial way what 
improvements are most necessary in each Ranger 
district and what additional men are necessary for 
the adequate protection of the region in question. 
He carefully weighs the arguments for and against 
each expenditure and decides what improvements 
must be made now and which ones it would be 



44 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

possible to postpone for one or more years without 
detriment to the work of his Forest as a whole. 
For in most cases the amount of necessary work to 
be done on each Ranger district is far in excess of 
the amount which the Forest Supervisor could ap- 
prove owing to the inadequacy of the Forest Serv- 
ice funds. So, for the Forest Supervisor, it is 
merely a question of how low he can keep his esti- 
mates for money for the ensuing year until such a 
time when Congress will appropriate more money 
so that all the important and necessary work can 
be done. In most cases therefore the major part 
of all the expenditures recommended by the Forest 
Ranger is warranted, but the Forest Supervisor 
knows that he must cut all the estimates down con- 
siderably in order to bring the total Forest estimate 
reasonably near the amount he is likely to get, bas- 
ing his judgment upon what he got the year before. 
Approval of Plans by the District Forester. 
The District Forester then gets the National Forest 
estimate from every one of his 25 or 30 Forest 
Supervisors and he in turn must decide what proj - 
ects on each Forest are immediately necessary and 
which ones can be postponed. The same process 
is repeated in the Washington office when all the 



ADMINISTRATION 45 

estimates from the District Foresters are received, 
and the Forester in turn sends to the Secretary of 
Agriculture his estimates by allotments or funds, 
which in turn are put before Congress. While 
Congress sometimes makes minor changes in the 
Forest Service appropriation, in most cases the bill 
is passed as it stands. 

The District Fiscal Agent. The money appro- 
priated by Congress is allotted to each district, and 
in turn to each National Forest and finally to each 
Ranger district by funds, such as General Ex- 
penses, Fire Fighting, Improvements, etc. In each 
district the financial matters are taken care of in the 
Office of Accounts by the District Fiscal Agent. 
He is the Assistant of the Chief of the Forest Serv- 
ice Branch of the Division of Accounts of the De- 
partment of Agriculture and pays all the bills in- 
curred by the district and receives all the money 
which comes in from the sale of National Forest 
resources. The amount of money appropriated for 
the district is credited to him and he disburses this 
appropriation in accordance with the Fiscal Regu- 
lations of the Department of Agriculture. No 
other officer is allowed to receive money for the sale 
of timber, forage, or other resources; in fact no 



46 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

other official in the District handles any of the 
Forest Service funds whatsoever. 

All remittances by users of the National Forests 
are made to the U. S. District Depository. If a 
rancher has bought some timber from a Forest 
Ranger, he is given a letter of transmittal showing 
the amount of the purchase which he must send to 
the District Fiscal Agent with the amount neces- 
sary to pay for the timber. The letter of transmit- 
tal explains the purpose of the remittance. 

Tax Money Paid to the States. Another inter- 
esting feature of the National Forest business is the 
money paid each State out of the annual receipts 
in lieu of taxes. It must be remembered that Na- 
tional Forests do not pay taxes to the States in 
which they are located. On the other hand, if the 
National Forests were private property they would 
bring into the county and state treasuries yearly 
taxes. To compensate the State for the taxes lost 
in this way each National Forest pays to each 
county in proportion to the area of the National 
Forest lands located in that county a sum of money 
equal to 25 per cent, of the total gross receipts 
each fiscal year. From the receipts of the fiscal 
year 1917 this amounts to about $850,000. It is 



ADMINISTRATION 47 

provided that this money is to he expended for 
schools and roads in the county in which the Na- 
tional Forests lie. Recently a law was passed giv- 
ing the Secretary of Agriculture authority to ex- 
pend an additional 10 per cent, of the National For- 
est receipts for the construction of roads and trails 
for the benefit of local communities. From the 
fiscal year 1917 this amounts to about $340,000. 
These moneys for roads, trails, and schools are of 
course a great benefit to the mountain communities, 
since usually the amount of taxable property in 
such remote localities is small and hence the amount 
of taxes received is small. These allotments to the 
counties have helped to develop the communication 
systems of local communities and have also made 
the National Forests more accessible and useful. 

THE EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR THE NATIONAL 

FORESTS 

The Property Auditor and Property Clerk. 
The depot for equipment, supplies, and blank forms 
is located at Ogden, Utah, and this office furnishes 
all the Forests in all the districts with most of the 
equipment necessary. The record of the prop- 
erty of the United States in the custody of the For- 



48 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

est Service is kept by a man called the Property 
Auditor. Requisitions for supplies and equipment 
are made by the Forest Supervisor to the Property 
Clerk. Government property is considered ex- 
pendable or non-expendable depending upon its 
character. Each Forest has a Property Custodian 
who has charge of all the property assigned to the 
Forest. When property is received from the 
Property Clerk or if property is transferred from 
one forest officer to another, the Property Custo- 
dian must note the change on his records. 

Blank Forms. The blank forms which are sup- 
plied by the Property Clerk are printed standard 
forms used in issuing permits, making contracts, 
reports, examinations, timber sale agreements, in 
short, those used in almost every business transac- 
tion of the Forest Service. Even timber estimates, 
tree measurements, and other similar public records 
are kept on standard printed forms for permanent 
uniform record. 

Supplies. Supplies such as stationery, type- 
writers, pencils, ink, notebooks, paper for map 
work, compasses, measuring tapes, and a host of 
other articles are furnished upon requisition by the 
Property Clerk. Equipment such as filing cases, 



ADMINISTRATION 49 

tables, chairs, typewriters, tree-measuring instru- 
ments, tents, cooking utensils, surveying instru- 
ments, snow shoes* skiis, knapsacks, water buckets, 
canteens, kodaks, and many other forms of equip- 
ment are furnished by the Property Clerk, although 
in cases of emergency some of these things may be 
purchased locally by Forest officers by the authority 
of the Forest Supervisor. 

NATIONAL FOREST IMROVEMENTS 

The Need of Improvements. It is but natural, 
from their situation, that the National Forests rep- 
resent pioneer conditions ; conditions that one might 
expect to find in a wild, rugged, mountainous coun- 
try. This was true to an extreme degree when the 
National Forests were first established and it is true 
in a very large degree even to-day, since the amount 
of time and money which it will be necessary to 
expend on the construction of improvements on the 
155,000,000 acres of National Forests is something 
enormous. For a long time to come, then, the Na- 
tional Forests will need improvements in order to 
make them secure against fire and in order to make 
the resources, now locked up, available. Proper 
protection and the fullest use of National Forest 



50 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

resources depend mainly upon facilities for trans- 
portation, communication, and control. All parts 
of the National Forests should be accessible by 
roads and trails; there should be telephone com- 
munication between settlements and Forest officers' 
headquarters and with the lookout stations ; and in 
most cases suitable living accommodations must 
be provided for the field force. For the fullest use 
of the forage resources, water for the live stock must 
be developed and range fences constructed; to re- 
duce the hazard and the cost and difficulty of con- 
trolling forest fires, firebreaks and other works 
must be constructed. 

Transportation Facilities. Adequate facilities 
for travel and transportation are of first import- 
ance. Steam roads, electric roads, and boat lines 
are utilized in the National Forest transportation 
system as well as the existing roads and trails. 
Added to this, new roads and trails are being con- 
structed every year to complete the already existing 
network. 

The need for new roads and trails depends upon 
the number of them already existing, the value of 
the resources that it is necessary to make accessible, 
the fire liability, and the amount of unrealized rev- 




Figure 13. A forest fire lookout tower on Leek Springs Mountain. 
Eldorado National Forest, California 



ADMINISTRATION 51 

enues due to lack of transportation facilities. If 
valuable grazing land or timber land can be made 
accessible there is good reason for building a new 
road. In many cases roads and trails are built to 
facilitate the protection of large remote areas from 
fire. Such areas may have large bodies of valu- 
able timber which if destroyed by forest fires would 
involve a heavy loss. Even aside from valuable 
timber on an area, it is absolutely necessary when a 
forest fire breaks out to get to it with men and fire- 
fighting equipment in the shortest possible time 
before it spreads. If the fire gets to be a large 
one, many men with provisions, tents, fire-fighting 
tools, and other equipment must be transported to 
the scene of the fire. Any delay in the transporta- 
tion of these things may prove fatal and may result 
in an uncontrollable conflagration. 

The transportation system that is proposed for a 
National Forest, if the one that exists is inadequate, 
is usually planned many years ahead. The ulti- 
mate or ideal system is always kept in mind so that 
every mile of road or trail that is constructed is 
made a part of it. If not enough money is avail- 
able for a good road, a trail is built along the line 
of the proposed road. Later this trail is widened 



52 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

into a permanent road. The Engineer connected 
with each District Office usually has charge of laying 
out big road projects. A few miles of permanent, 
good, dirt road with good grade is always preferred 
to many miles of poor road with heavy grade and 
improper drainage. A road and trail system is 
planned for each National Forest which will event- 
ually place every portion of the Forest within a 
distance of at least 7% miles of a wagon road. A 
pack-train can then transport supplies from the 
point to which they are delivered on the wagon 
road to any field camp and return in a single day. 

In trail and road construction it is very often 
necessary to build bridges. Sometimes a very sim- 
ple log bridge meets the need, but in bridging many 
large mountain torrents, which become very high 
and dangerous in the spring, large bridges are 
necessary. Cable suspension bridges and queen 
and king truss bridges are built where occasion 
arises for them, but only after being planned in 
detail and after the District Forester has approved 
their design and method of construction. 

Very often navigable streams and lakes are used 
as a part of the transportation system on a Na- 
tional Forest. On the Tahoe National Forest in 




< 



- 



i- O 



O 



2 o 
£,fa 



fa 



fa 



ADMINISTRATION 58 

California launches are operated by the Forest 
Service on Lake Tahoe to patrol the region around 
the lake for forest fires. Ferries, boats, and 
launches belonging to private companies or indi- 
viduals are used by agreement or if necessary are 
bought by the Service from the Improvement 
funds. Speeders, motor cars, and hand cars on 
railroads or logging roads are often used when an 
agreement has been made with the company. In 
this way railroads are made a part of the transpor- 
tation system of the Forest. 

Communication Facilities. The system of com- 
munication on the National Forests is scarcely less 
important than the system of transportation. This 
system includes telephone lines, signal systems, and 
mail service. The telephone system, as can be 
readily seen, is of the utmost importance for the 
transaction of all kinds of National Forest busi- 
ness. In case a Forest Ranger wishes to speak to 
his Supervisor about controlling a large fire, it 
makes a great difference whether he can talk to 
him over the telephone or whether he must send a 
messenger on horseback perhaps 60 or 70 miles. 
In the former case practically no time is lost, in 
the latter it would take at least two days for the 



54 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

messenger to reach the Forest Ranger, and in the 
meantime the fire would continue to rage and 
spread. 

In the absence of a telephone system a signal 
system is used. The one probably used the most 
in forest fire protection work is the heliograph, by 
which code messages are sent from one point to 
another by means of a series of light flashes on a 
mirror. The light of the sun is used and the flashes 
are made by the opening and closing of a shutter 
in front of the mirror. Very often these helio- 
graph stations are located on mountain tops in the 
midst of extremely inaccessible country. Where 
there are a number of these stations at least one is 
connected by telephone to the Forest Supervisor's 
office. When the Forest officer at the telephone 
gets a heliograph message about a certain fire he 
immediately telephones the news directly to the 
Forest Ranger in whose district the fire is located, 
or if he does not happen to be in direct communi- 
cation with the Forest Ranger he notifies the Forest 
Supervisor, who then notifies the officer concerned. 
Of course it is all prearranged who should be noti- 
fied in case a fire is reported to the heliograph man. 

Unfortunately it has been found that this system 




Figure 15. A typical view of the National Forest country in Mon- 
tana. Forest Service trail up Squaw Peak Patrol Station, Cabinet 
National Forest. 



ADMINISTRATION 55 

of communication is not satisfactory even under 
favorable conditions. This system depends upon 
direct sunlight; without it is useless. When there 
is much smoke in the air it is also of uncertain 
value. The heliograph system has perhaps reached 
its greatest development upon the California Na- 
tional Forest, but even here experience has shown 
that it is only a temporary makeshift and the plan 
is to replace it by a telephone system as soon as 
possible. 

The Forest Supervisor, especially in his summer 
headquarters, depends directly upon the mail serv- 
ice for communication with the District Forester 
and the outside world. In many cases the fact that 
the Forest Supervisor has his headquarters in a 
small mountain community in the summer has 
made it possible for that community to receive a 
daily mail service or mail at least three times a week. 
When the Forest Supervisor becomes satisfied that 
mail service is desirable in certain mountain com- 
munities he investigates local settlers' needs for 
mail facilities ; or he may cooperate with the people 
in the nearest village who are petitioning for mail 
service. Often his influence proves the deciding 
factor in getting it. 



5Q OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

As I have said before, telephone communication 
is indispensable to fire protection and to quick and 
efficient methods of conducting National Forest 
business. Not only do Forest Service lines enter 
into the National Forest telephone system but all 
private lines are also made use of. By cooperative 
agreements with private companies the National 
Forest lines are used by private companies, in re- 
turn for which private lines are used by the Forest 
Service. In this way a complete network of tele- 
phone lines is established connecting not only the 
Forest Supervisor with all his Rangers and his for- 
est fire lookout stations, but also connecting each 
one of these with local communities and the large 
towns at a distance. Thus, when a forest fire occurs 
and the available local help is not sufficient to con- 
trol the fire the telephone system is put to use to call 
help from the nearest villages and towns. 

Grazing Improvements. It is often necessary 
for the complete and economical use of the forage 
on a National Forest to cooperate with the local 
stockmen to develop range by constructing im- 
provements. Water may have to be developed; 
fences, corrals, bridges, trails, and other works may 
have to be constructed. Often cattle belonging to 




SlU 






bs. * 



ADMINISTRATION 57 

different stockmen are grazed on adjacent areas 
which are not separated by natural boundaries such 
as rivers, ridges, or swamps. If there is no obstacle 
to prevent the cattle from drifting from one range 
into another, a drift fence is built, thus definitely 
separating one stockman's range from the other. 
Often good range would remain unused on account 
of lack of water altogether or on account of lack of 
water during the dry season only. In this case the 
Forest Service usually cooperates with the stock- 
men to provide water. Roads, trails, and bridges 
are often necessary to enable sheep and cattle to 
reach range lands. 

Protective Improvements. Ranger stations, 
cabins, lookout stations, firebreaks and similar 
works are required to protect the forests from fire 
and are known as protective improvements. Build- 
ings are constructed for the field force to afford 
necessary shelter and to furnish an office for the 
efficient transaction of business. Land is often 
cultivated for the production of forage crops and 
fences are built to insure necessary pasturage for 
live stock used by the Forest officers in their work. 
The buildings may be substantial houses to be used 
throughout the year or they may be merely such 



58 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

structures as will afford the necessary shelter and 
domestic conveniences for Forest officers in the 
summer. These summer camps are constructed 
where needed for the use of patrolmen, officers en- 
gaged in timber sale work or at such points as will 
serve the needs of officers traveling through the 
forest. Barns, sheds, and other small structures 
are constructed at the Ranger's headquarters when 
they are needed. Office buildings are also con- 
structed for the use of Forest Rangers or for sum- 
mer headquarters of the Forest Supervisor. 

Appropriations for Improvement Work. The 
money for the construction of National Forest im- 
provements is secured from various sources. The 
annual Forest Service appropriation usually carries 
a considerable sum for this purpose. In the fiscal 
year 1918 $450,000 has been appropriated for this 
work, which divided among the 147 National For- 
ests gives an average only of about $3,000 per For- 
est. This is really a very small sum considering 
the size of the average National Forest. Fortu- 
nately there are other appropriations and funds and 
each year sees more money available for this most 
important work. Under the law 25 per cent, of the 








..• k LV—» j>JT. h'.-vJ 

Figure IT. A forest fire lookout station on the top of Lassen Peak, 
elevation 10,400 feet, Lassen National Forest, California. This cabin 
was first erected complete in a carpenter's shop in Red Bluff, about 
.50 miles away. It was then taken to pieces and packed to the foot 
of Lassen Peak. On the last two miles of its journey it was packed 
piece by piece on forest officers' backs and finally reassembled on the 
topmost pinnacle of the mountain. Photo by the author. 

Figure 18. Forest officers and laborers building a wagon road 
through trap rock. Payette Xational Forest, Idaho. 



ADMINISTRATION 59 

receipts are paid to the States in which the National 
Forests are located to be expended for roads and 
schools. The amount to be paid to the States in 
this way from the receipts in 1917 is about $848,- 
874.00. Ey the acts of Congress organizing them 
as States, Arizona and New Mexico also receive 
for their schools funds an additional share of the 
receipts based on the proportion that their school 
lands within the National Forests bear to the total 
National Forest area in the States. The approxi- 
mate amounts due on account of the receipts for 
1917 are $42,844.80 to Arizona and $18,687.56 to 
New Mexico. Congress has also provided that 10 
per cent, of the receipts shall be set aside as an 
appropriation to be used under the direction of the 
Secretary of Agriculture for road and trail build- 
ing in National Forests in cooperation with state 
authorities or otherwise. The amount thus appro- 
priated on account of the fiscal year 1917 receipts is 
$339,549.61. This added to the amount carried 
over from the 1916 receipts fund, $136,981.23, and 
the amount appropriated for improvements, in the 
regular Agricultural Appropriation Bill, $450,- 
000.00, brings the total available for the construe- 



60 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

tion of roads, trails, cabins, bridges, telephone lines, 
etc., on the National Forests for the fiscal year 1918 
to $926,530.84. 

There is still another fund recently appropriated 
which will enable roads and trails to be built on a 
very much larger scale than hitherto has been possi- 
ble and will result in the rapid opening of forest 
regions at present practically inaccessible. The 
Federal Aid Road Act, passed by Congress in 1916, 
appropriated ten million dollars for the construc- 
tion and maintenance of roads and trails within 
or partly within National Forests. This money 
becomes available at the rate of a million dollars a 
year until 1927. In general, the States and counties 
are required to furnish cooperation in an amount 
at least equal to 50 per cent, of the estimated cost of 
the surveys and construction of projects approved 
by the Secretary of Agriculture. The apportion- 
ment among the States is based on the area of Na- 
tional Forest lands in each State and the estimated 
value of the timber and forage resources which the 
Forests contain. 

The total amount from all sources available for 
roads, trails, and other improvements on the Na- 



ADMINISTRATION 61 

tional Forests during the fiscal year 1918 is there- 
fore $1,926,530.84. 

THE CLASSIFICATION AND CONSOLIDATION OF 
NATIONAL FOREST LANDS 

The classification and consolidation of National 
Forest lands is a matter of great importance to 
their proper administration and protection. If all 
the lands within the Forests are to be put to their 
highest use for the permanent good of the whole 
people the lands inside of their boundaries must be 
classified and permanent boundaries established for 
each Forest. Through this kind of work the Na- 
tional Forests gain in stability. The classification 
and segregation of the agricultural lands is most 
important, for these lands are open to entry under 
the Forest Homestead Act. 

Land Classification. The land classification 
work is organized in the Washington and District 
Offices under the Branch of Lands. Crews of men 
are sent out from the District Offices and the work 
of classification, carefully planned ahead, is done by 
projects, that is, large contiguous areas are exam- 
ined together. For instance, the Hat Creek Proj- 



62 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

ect on the Lassen National Forest consisted of a 
number of large areas containing scattered parcels 
of agricultural lands along the Hat Creek valley 
in that Forest. For the classification of the lands 
on a big project a surveyor and a lineman, one or 
more timber cruisers, and an expert from the Bu- 
reau of Soils constitute the crew. As a result of 
this work over 1,100 individual tracts within the 
Forests were made available for entry under the 
Forest Homestead Act during the fiscal year 1916, 
because this land was found to have a greater value 
for growing agricultural crops than for growing 
timber. Under this same policy since 1912 about 
12,000,000 acres were eliminated from the Forests, 
partly because they were of greater value for agri- 
cultural use, or because they were not suited for the 
purposes for which the National Forests were cre- 
ated. Up to June 30, 1917, 127,156,610 acres of 
National Forest land have been examined and clas- 
sified. Such work as this, once and for all time, 
will settle the controversy now and then waged in 
Congress by certain Congressmen that the National 
Forests have large and valuable tracts of agricul- 
tural lands locked up within their boundaries and 
therefore should be abolished, or turned over to the 



ADMINISTRATION 63 

States, or equally radical disposition made of them. 
Such Congressmen usually are working for some 
predatory private interests who want to secure the 
great wealth in the National Forests that is being 
wisely conserved for the people. 

The Consolidation of National Forest Lands. 
There has also been a great need for consolidating 
the National Forest lands where these were inter- 
spersed with private or state lands. Congress has 
recognized this need and from time to time has 
granted authority to exchange lands with private 
owners or States where such an exchange would be 
advantageous to the Government through the re- 
sulting consolidation of holdings. Thus by getting 
the government lands into a more compact body 
their administration and protection are materially 
facilitated in many ways. 

Before any exchange is made it must be ascer- 
tained that the land which the Government is to 
receive has equal value with that relinquished, also 
that the land is chiefly valuable for the production 
of timber and the protection of stream flow. Re- 
cent additions to the Whitman National Forest in 
Oregon consisted of privately owned cut-over tim- 
berland rapidly reproducing to valuable timber 



64 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

trees. Title to this will be secured by exchange for 
government owned lands. 

HOW YOUNG FORESTS ARE PLANTED TO REPLACE 
THOSE DESTROYED BY FIRE 

Reforestation and the Timber Supply. More 
than 15,000,000 acres of National Forest lands 
which are capable of producing timber and valuable 
chiefly for that purpose have been denuded of their 
original tree growth. These lands are not adapted 
to agriculture and possess but a small value for 
grazing. In their present condition they are prac- 
tically unproductive barrens. 

It is probable that one-half of this area will re- 
forest itself naturally through the reseeding of 
burns, and the encroachment of tree growth upon 
natural openings, parks, grass lands, and brush 
lands. This natural extension of the forest on such 
areas is progressing at the estimated rate of 150,000 
acres annually. The remaining half of the de- 
nuded area, 7,500,000 acres, must be reforested by 
artificial means. This land is unquestionably 
adapted to growing timber and useful to the nation 
primarily for that purpose. Every year that it lies 
idle the country suffers a great financial loss, for 



ADMINISTRATION 65 

such an immense area is capable of growing at least 
three-quarters of a billion feet of timber annually. 
It was recently estimated that the timberlands on 
the National Forests are producing between five 
and six billion feet of lumber annually by growth. 
The complete restocking of the areas now denuded 
or sparsely timbered will increase the annual pro- 
duction of wood at least 25 per cent., an item 
certainly worth considering. 

Reforestation and Water Supply. Even more 
important than the value of the timber which is lost 
annually is the part which these large areas play in 
the conservation of water supply. Most of this 
area is on the watersheds of western streams and 
rivers and the fact that it is denuded is a dangerous 
menace to the equable flow of the rivers which drain 
those areas. The National Forests contain over 
1,175 watersheds which supply many municipalities, 
324 water-power projects, and 1,266 irrigation 
projects, aside from many other outside power and 
irrigation projects which are fed by watersheds 
within the Forests. The cities of Salt Lake City, 
Utah; Denver and Colorado Springs, Colorado; 
Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington, all de- 
rive their municipal water supply from streams aris- 



66 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

ing in the National Forests. The proposed water 
system for the city of San Francisco, California, is 
also to be taken from the National Forest streams. 
A few years ago planting was undertaken on the 
watershed of the Colorado Springs, Colorado, reser- 
voir. This water supply is worth annually from 
$80,000 to $100,000. Besides this the 2,000 horse- 
power hydro-electric plants are valued at $40,000 
and the 40,000 undeveloped horsepower are said to 
have an additional value of $400,000, making the 
total value of the watershed more than $500,000, 
with the probability that a greater water supply 
having a far greater value will be needed as the city 
grows. 

And there are many evidences that the people of 
the West have begun to realize that the National 
Forests are the key to the entire water-supply situ- 
ation in the West no matter for what purpose the 
water is used. The public consideration now being 
given to flood control, the requests from many west- 
ern cities for special measures to protect their mu- 
nicipal water supply, the concern expressed by irri- 
gation associations in Colorado and elsewhere, lest 
even the regulated cutting on the National Forests 




Figure 19. Drying pine cones preparatory to extracting the seed. 
Near Plumas National Forest, California. 

Figure ^0. Extracting tree seed from the cones. The dried cones 
are shaken around until the seeds drop out through the wire mesh 
which forms the sides of the machine. 



ADMINISTRATION 67 

may reduce stream flow, and the rapid rate at which 
unused reservoir and power sites in the Forests are 
being developed, all are evidences of the importance 
of Forests in protecting water supplies. Refor- 
estation is essential so that the National Forests 
can effectively discharge this function. 

Government Reforestation Policy. The duty of 
the Forest Service to put the denuded areas which 
will not be reforested naturally into a condition of 
productivity admits of no further argument. But 
the problem is not so easily solved as it is made 
clear. Under the semi-arid conditions prevailing 
on many National Forests this work involves un- 
certainties and unsolved problems. On the Na- 
tional Forests artificial reforestation was an untried 
field when the Forest Service entered it. The Gov- 
ernment therefore had to develop its own practice 
in the face of a great variety of conditions, largely 
unfavorable. The situation still calls for intensive 
experiments to develop the best methods from the 
standpoint of both cost and results. More than 
that, it calls for a different set of methods for each 
forest region of the West which has its peculiar 
trees, climate, and soils. Then, lastly, when the 



68 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

proper methods have been demonstrated by experi- 
ment, the new methods can be applied on a large 
scale with a very good chance for success. 

Therefore intensive experiments must come first. 
Business prudence requires the development of all 
methods in detail and reasonable certainty as to 
their results before large sums are expended upon 
field operations. In the least favorable regions like 
the semi-arid mesas of the Southwest, the work is 
restricted for the present to small, carefully con- 
ducted experiments, the result sought being relia- 
ble information upon how to proceed rather than 
the reforestation of many acres. In the most fa- 
vorable regions, as the western slopes of the Rocky 
Mountains and the Cascade Ranges, the results al- 
ready obtained have been so excellent, due to an 
unusual combination of good growing conditions, 
that operations upon a larger scale have been justi- 
fied simultaneously with continued intensive inves- 
tigations. As the work is extended into each new 
region or new National Forest, the most favorable 
sites are always chosen first. After the possibili- 
ties and limitations of each method have been ascer- 
tained by experience under the best conditions of 
each locality the work can either be intelligently 



ADMINISTRATION 69 

extended or restricted. But the work is always 
conducted from the standpoint of the maximum re- 
turn for each dollar expended. 

In accordance with the policy outlined by the 
Forest Service watersheds used for municipal sup- 
ply or irrigation continue to receive first considera- 
tion. Large sums are not, however, being spent on 
such watersheds where any uncertainty as to the 
outcome exists; that is before successful methods 
have been perfected by experiment. In addition to 
watersheds, reforestation work is being conducted 
for the primary object of producing timber only 
where climatic conditions and other factors are ex- 
tremely favorable. As far as possible these areas 
are being selected with reference to the low cost of 
the work, natural conditions which insure rapid tree 
growth, and urgent local need for additional timber 
supplies. These favorable conditions generally ob- 
tain in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Min- 
nesota, and Michigan and it is in these States that 
the best results have been obtained. In California, 
Utah, Nevada, Colorado, and the Southwest the 
work is restricted to intensive experiments on a 
small scale, until successful methods of meeting 
the adverse local conditions have been perfected. 



70 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

Methods of Reforestation. Two general meth- 
ods of reforestation have been developed. The 
first is called the direct seeding method, in which 
tree seed is sown upon the ground with or without 
simple forms of cultivation. The other method is 
the planting method by which seedlings are grown 
in nurseries under ideal conditions of soil, light, 
and moisture until they are large enough to be 
transplanted and stand the rigors of the open field. 
Direct seeding, where successful, is the cheaper 
method, but is necessarily limited to sites whose 
soil and moisture conditions are exceptionally fa- 
vorable to tree growth. The inability of the newly 
germinated seedling to establish itself except in 
comparatively moist soil makes the success of this 
method on the semi-arid mesas of the Southwest, 
for example, very problematical, especially since 
these localities are subject to long dry seasons. In 
such localities the use of the direct seeding method 
must be restricted to experiments designed to deter- 
mine the exact range of conditions under which it 
is feasible. The main effort, however, of the For- 
est Service has been given to direct seeding on areas 
where reasonable success appears to be assured. 




Figure 21. Preparing the ground with a spring-tooth harrow for 
the broadcast sowing of tree seeds. Battlement National Forest, 
Colorado. This view was taken at approximately 10,000 feet eleva- 
tion. Photo by the author. 

Figure 22. A local settler delivering a load of Lodgepole pine 
cones at the seed extractor}', for which he receives 45 cents per 
bushel. Forest officers receiving them. Arapaho National Forest, 
Colorado. 



ADMINISTRATION 71 

The planting of 2 or 3 year old seedlings or trans- 
plants largely overcomes the adverse soil and moist- 
ure factors which appear to have made direct seed- 
ing unsuccessful in many localities. This method, 
which is the general practice in European forestry, 
must without doubt be employed to reforest a con- 
siderable portion of the denuded lands. The 
growing and planting of nursery stock is carried on 
simultaneously with direct seeding. The object of 
this is to ascertain the comparative results of the 
two methods, the sites on which the greater success 
will be obtained from each, and the proper relation 
of the two methods in the future development of 
reforestation work. 

Since reforestation work was begun on the Na- 
tional Forests about 135,500 acres have been sowed 
or planted. The larger part of this acreage 
was reforested by direct seeding. Until only a few 
years ago larger areas were direct seeded each year 
than were planted to nursery stock, but at the pres- 
ent time more planting is being done. During the 
fiscal year 1916 about 7,600 acres were planted and 
about 2,800 acres were seeded. The average cost 
in that year of planting was about $10.00 per acre, 



72 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

that of the seeding was about $4.50 per acre. The 
1917 costs were slightly higher, due to the increased 
cost of labor and supplies. 

The reforesting methods of the Forest Service 
mean the collection of large quantities of seeds and 
the growing of large quantities of small trees for 
planting. Since 1911 the Forest Service has col- 
lected over 175,000 pounds of seeds for its direct 
seeding and planting work. During the fiscal year 
1916 the Forest Service had 14 large tree-nurseries 
and 7 small ones, which had in them over 37 million 
young trees which would, in a short time, be planted 
in the field. From these figures it is readily seen 
that the reforestation work on the National Forests 
is conducted on a large scale. 

Direct Seeding Work on the National Forests. 
The direct seeding work on the National Forests 
involves many more problems than one would at 
first thought suppose. Seed must be collected and 
extracted; it must be stored, if it is not used im- 
mediately; if the seed is sown it must be protected 
from rodents and very often the ground must be 
prepared before the seed is sown. 

Seeds are collected in various ways. Often 
cones are purchased at advertised rates from per- 




♦ 



nc^ur*, 




i. '\»^ 




Figure 23. In the forest nursery a trough is often used for sowing 
seed in drills. The seed scattered along the sides of the trough rat- 
tles into position at the bottom and is more even than when distrib- 
uted by the ordinary worker at the bottom of the trough. Pike 
National Forest, Colorado. 

Figure x?4. Uncle Sam grows the little trees by the millions. 
These will soon cover some of the bare hillsides on the National 
Forests of the West. 



ADMINISTRATION 73 

sons who make a business of seed collecting. The 
collectors deliver the cones to a specified Ranger 
station or to some seed extracting plant. But such 
collectors are not always available. Seed is col- 
lected by Forest officers by stripping cones directly 
from standing trees or from those felled in logging 
operations. Large quantities are also gathered 
from the vast stores or caches assembled by squir- 
rels. 

Seed extraction is usually done most economi- 
cally by experienced Forest officers. It requires 
drying by exposure to natural or artificial heat to 
open the cones ; threshing to separate the seed from 
the scales and woody portions of the cone; and 
cleaning or fanning to remove chaff and dirt. 
Much of the extraction has hitherto been done in 
small quantities at a large number of stations and 
with very simple home-made appliances. In view 
of the large amount of seed which must be handled 
each year the cost of extraction has been materially 
reduced and seed of higher average fertility has 
been obtained by concentrating the major part of 
the work at central seed-extracting plants equipped 
with improved machinery. 

A problem of great importance from the stand- 



74 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

point of final results is that of having seed avail- 
able at the season of the year when it is needed. 
Past experiments have shown that fall sowing is 
essential to success in most parts of the West where 
extensive seeding projects will be conducted. Ex- 
perience has also shown that seed on a large scale 
cannot be extracted in time for use in the same 
season. Moreover, every year is not a good seed 
year, so that Forest officers must take advantage of 
the good years to collect large quantities and store 
them for use during years of seed shortage. Pur- 
chased domestic or foreign seed cannot be used to 
advantage to make up these deficiencies because it 
is sometimes of poor quality and not adapted to the 
climatic conditions in which it must be sown. For 
these reasons methods had to be devised for storing 
large quantities of seeds for several years at a time 
and in such a manner that their vitality would not 
be impaired. Many storage tests have been made 
by the Forest Service to determine the best way of 
storing seeds. The tests showed that the sealed 
glass jar is the best container and that seed must 
be stored either in air-tight receptacles or at low 
temperatures to be kept for any considerable period 
without loss of fertility. 



ADMINISTRATION 75 

Probably the greatest obstacle encountered in re- 
forestation by direct seeding is the destruction of 
the seeds by rodents. The failure of many direct 
seeding projects has been due primarily to loss from 
this cause. Failure has occurred on areas of prac- 
tically every character regardless of the time of the 
year the seed was sown. Success has been en- 
countered only where recent burns had largely 
eliminated the animals either by outright destruc- 
tion or by the loss of food supply. The rodents 
which are most destructive to tree seeds are the 
ground squirrels, the chipmunks, the mice, and the 
gophers. It is not strange that they should seek 
out the seed that has been carefully sown by the 
Forest officers. In many cases these seeds are their 
natural food and they are wonderfully diligent and 
expert in searching it out. 

In cooperation with the Biological Survey, the 
Forest Service has worked on the problem of de- 
stroying the rodents. Many methods have been 
tried out in the field. The free use of grain poi- 
soned with strychnine has thus far produced the 
best results and has reduced the loss from rodents 
sufficiently to secure satisfactory germination. 
The successful elimination of such injury appears 



76 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

to lie in the thorough poisoning by this method of 
areas to be seeded, once or oftener in advance of 
sowing. 

With successful germination assured by the col- 
lection of good seed and the protection of it after 
it has been sowed from rodents, the next problem 
lies in cheap methods of cultivation and sowing. 
This will enable the young seedling to develop its 
root system early enough and rapidly enough to 
withstand the first annual drought, the dominant 
feature of the climate of all the western National 
Forests. 

There are numerous methods used in sowing tree 
seed on the National Forests. Three general 
methods are used in most of the work. Broadcast 
sowing is practiced in the fall and spring or upon 
the snow in the winter, both on ground that has 
not been prepared and on soil that has been scari- 
fied by rough brush drags, harrowing, disking, or 
partial or complete plowing. In seed-spot sowing 
the seed is planted at regular intervals in small 
spots where the soil is cleared of vegetation and 
worked up loose to a depth of from 5 to 6 inches. 
When corn planting or dibbling is practiced the 
seed is thrust into the soil by a hand corn-planter, 




v y. 



s j 






V 2° 
D -_X 



ADMINISTRATION 77 

or, in the case of large nuts, pressed into holes made 
with a pointed stick. The corn-planter method is 
often combined with the preparation of seed spots 
or the plowing of single furrows, in order to plant 
the seed in loose soil free from vegetation. 

On a large majority of the Forests broadcast 
seeding on unprepared ground has not succeeded. 
As a rule satisfactory stands have been secured 
from broadcasting only after an expensive prelimi- 
nary cultivation which would be impracticable in 
extended operations and which would exceed the 
cost of planting with nursery stock. But broad- 
casting on prepared strips and upon recent burns 
has given some success. The seed-spot method has 
been most successful if done at the proper season. 
Late summer and early fall sowing has produced 
better results than sowing in spring or winter. As 
a whole direct seeding has not succeeded, espe- 
cially when the results and costs of the work are 
compared with the planting of nursery stock. 
Planting has thus far yielded better results, espe- 
cially on the less favorable areas. Furthermore, 
from the standpoint of final results attained, plant- 
ing has actually been cheaper than seeding, in spite 
of the greater initial cost of planting. While the 



78 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

major emphasis in reforestation work is placed 
upon planting, considerable seeding is being done, 
but it is confined to the most favorable localities 
and sites. 

Planting on the National Forests. Reforesta- 
tion by planting young trees has received much 
attention during the last few years principally be- 
cause it has produced better results. Much still 
remains to be said for both methods and future 
experiments alone can decide which method to use 
in a specified region and under given conditions of 
climate and soil. Usually direct seeding has been 
tried first in any given locality where reforestation 
work was to be done. In fact the policy of the 
Forest Service in artificial reforestation on the 
National Forests has been, first, to conduct experi- 
ments to find out what can be done and what is the 
best way to do it ; second, to reforest by direct seed- 
ing wherever this is feasible; and third, to plant 
nursery seedlings where direct seeding has been 
found too uncertain. 

In selecting areas for planting, preference is 
usually given to the watersheds of streams im- 
portant for irrigation and municipal water supply 
and to land which is capable of producing heavy 




Mi 

a iiMijliil MUM 




Figure 26. A view of seed sowing with a corn planter. San Isabel 
Xational Forest, Colorado 

Figure 27. Sowing seed along contour lines on the slopes. Pike 
Xational Forest, Colorado 



ADMINISTRATION 79 

stands of a quick-growing species or of a specially 
valuable species. Next in importance are areas 
which offer good opportunities for object lessons to 
the public in the practice of forestry. Some areas 
offer combinations of advantages. For instance, a 
burned-over tract may be suitable for planting to 
some rapid-growing species which is also valuable 
for timber and at the same time may be situated so 
that it will serve as an object lesson also. It is on 
such areas in general that reforestation by planting 
is being concentrated. 

While the reforestation of the watersheds of 
streams important for irrigation and municipal 
water supply has a large financial value, this value 
is hard to estimate because it involves not actual 
cash profit but loss prevented. But when a favor- 
able site is planted to a quick-growing, valuable, 
species, it is comparatively easy to arrive at a fair 
estimate of the possible profit on money invested. 
It has been estimated that under many conditions 
it is highly profitable to reforest waste lands on the 
National Forests by planting. From certain ex- 
periments made it is estimated that a white pine 
forest artificially established on a second-class forest 
soil in Minnesota, will yield about 46,500 board feet 



80 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

per acre in 50 years, worth at least $10 per thou- 
sand feet, or $465 per acre. Figuring the cost of 
planting and the cost of care and protection per 
acre per year at 3 per cent, compound interest gives 
a total cost of $34.07 per acre at the time the timber 
is cut and a net profit of $8.62 per acre per year. 
Douglas fir in the Northwest will produce 81,000 
board feet in 80 years, worth at least $8.50 per 
thousand feet. After deducting all expenses this 
would leave a net profit of $555.30 in 80 years or 
about $6.94 per acre per year. These profits are 
indeed large, considering that the land is not ca- 
pable of producing cereal or vegetable crops profit- 
ably. And it must be remembered that in all the 
above calculations all the money invested is earning 
3 per cent, compound interest and that the net 
profits are the earnings in excess of this 3 per cent, 
interest. 

The little trees that are set out on the National 
Forests every year are produced in large nurseries, 
where they are grown by the millions. In these 
nurseries the little trees receive the most expert care 
from the time the seeds germinate until the time 
they are large enough to withstand the rigors of 
wind and weather on the barren hillsides of Uncle 



ADMINISTRATION 81 

Sam's Forests. The seeds are first carefully sown 
in seed beds and left to develop in these from 
one to three years. At the end of one year they 
may be transplanted in nursery rows where they 
will have more room to develop. Rapidly growing 
species like yellow pine are kept only a year in the 
seed bed and perhaps one or two years in the trans- 
plant beds; but slow growing species, like cedar, 
must remain in the seed beds two years and 
usually two years in the transplant beds. All this 
depends upon the species and the site upon which it 
is to be planted. 

If my reader were to visit the Pikes Peak region 
during spring or fall he would doubtless encounter 
large gangs of men planting young trees on the 
barren mountain slopes. Under the proper super- 
vision of Forest officers some of the men will be seen 
digging holes with a mattock while others are com- 
ing directly behind them with bags or boxes with 
wet moss or burlap, containing small trees. These 
men are called respectively the diggers and 
planters. Two men will plant from 500 to 1,000 
trees a day, depending upon how deep the holes 
must be dug to accommodate the roots, whether the 
ground is bare or covered with sod, whether the land 



82 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

is mountainous or level, and many other factors. 
In this way Uncle Sam plants his denuded areas 
in the Forests, so that they will be producing timber 
for future generations instead of useless brush or 
tree weeds. The great variety of climatic and 
topographic conditions included in the National 
Forest area makes the problem of tree planting in- 
finitely complex. Nursery stock must be raised in 
each region having similar climatic conditions, and 
in each of these regions different methods of plant- 
ing must be used, depending upon local conditions. 
The semi-arid mesas of Arizona and New Mexico 
present different planting problems from the humid 
forest regions of Oregon and Washington; the 
methods used in the sandhills of Nebraska and the 
sand plains of Michigan cannot be applied in full 
on the high mountain slopes of Colorado; nor are 
the planting problems in the vast chaparral areas of 
northern California anything like those encountered 
in the mountains of Idaho, or in the prairie States of 
the Middle West, or in the Black Hills. Then, 
again, the reforestation problems of the chaparral 
fields of southern California are more perplexing 
than any I have mentioned above. 






.- 










^. #&3^ 




^#3* = 






MIS 



1 lj 



ass 







8 *° 
B - — 

I el 












c 

< 



ADMINISTRATION 83 

THE ORGANIZATION AND SCOPE OF FOREST EXPERI- 
MENTS AND INVESTIGATIONS 

The Need of Scientific Experiments. No sci- 
ence can make progress without intensive experi- 
ments and investigations, least of all a new science 
like forestry. The science of forestry as it has 
developed in Europe is several hundred years old, 
but the science of forestry as applied to American 
conditions is still in the infancy of its development 
— probably not over 20 years old. Therefore we 
know very little about our trees, our forests, and the 
wood which they produce, and the professional for- 
esters who handle the scientific work on our 
National Forests are very much handicapped. To 
supply the needed information about the require- 
ments of many of our tree species, the uses to which 
their wood can be put, and many other related sub- 
jects, the Forest Service has established 8 Forest 
Experiment Stations (recently reduced to 6) and 
one Forest Products Laboratory. It has become 
the business of these institutions to study the laws 
governing the life of the tree and the forest and 
their effect upon the final product — wood. The 
Experiment Stations are working on the solution of 



84 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

the many problems which confront the Forest offi- 
cers in the management and the protection of the 
National Forests ; while the Forest Products Labo- 
ratory was organized to promote the most profitable 
utilization and the most economical disposition of 
the forest products of the National Forests. Both 
sets of institutions, in doing this, are helping mate- 
rially to build up the science of American Forestry, 
which even to-day can hardly be said to exist. 

The Science of Growing Timber. In order to 
better understand the many diversified problems 
which are being studied at the Forest Experiment 
Stations, it is necessary to give the reader a few 
ideas concerning the science of forest ecology. 
This science is the basis of all problems dealing with 
the growing of timber and is therefore a study of 
the utmost importance to forestry. Forest ecology 
is the study of the relations of trees and forests to 
their surroundings. By surroundings (or environ- 
ment) we mean all the factors which influence their 
growth and reproduction, such as soil temperature, 
soil moisture, soil texture, rainfall, light, wind, air 
temperature, relative humidity, altitude, slope, ex- 
posure, and surface. Forests, we must remember, 
are not warehouses of standing logs; they are not 



ADMINISTRATION 85 

merely aggregations of individual trees; but they 
are complex communities of living organisms, which 
are affected in many ways by climate and soil and 
which, in turn, affect in no small degree the climatic 
and soil conditions in their immediate vicinity. The 
forester cannot treat the forest as an aggregation 
of individuals, for forests have laws which govern 
their behavior which are entirely different from 
those that govern the individual tree. Some for- 
esters and botanists prefer to call this science by 
the name of "tree sociology," and they compare it 
with human sociology. Individuals, as we well 
know, are governed by different natural laws than 
communities. Just so with trees and forests. In 
order, therefore, to grow a never-failing supply of 
timber intelligently and economically we must un- 
derstand these complex organisms and communities, 
we must study their behavior under different soil 
and climatic conditions and ascertain the conditions 
under which they grow best. Only by doing this 
can the forester achieve all the objects of forestry, 
namely, to help Nature to produce more and better 
timber, in a shorter length of time and at the 
smallest possible cost. 

The experimental work of the Forest Experi- 



86 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

ment Stations is grouped under such categories as 
these: dendrological studies, forestation studies, 
studies in forest influences, studies relating to forest 
management, studies in forest protection, commer- 
cial tree studies, and grazing studies. 

Dendrological Studies. Dendrological studies 
include studies in tree distribution and wood identi- 
fication. For each tree species growing in the 
United States (and there are about 500 of them) it 
is desirable to know its geographical distribution, 
its commercial distribution, and its local distribu- 
tion. The first of these deals with the entire range 
of the tree by geographical divisions ; the second of 
these with the distribution of those bodies of timber 
that are of commercial quantity or size ; and the last 
deals with the distribution of the tree by local di- 
visions, such as lowlands, slopes, ridges, valleys, 
plateaus, etc. This information is usually placed 
on maps for permanent record. Observations by 
Forest officers on the many National Forests are re- 
corded by them and at the first opportunity sent to 
Washington. Very often it happens that the range 
of a species of tree is considerably extended and 
that a tree is found growing in a locality where it 
was never reported from before. The identifica- 



ADMINISTRATION 87 

tion of woods is done at the Forest Products Labo- 
ratory. The distinguishing characteristics of the 
woods of many American tree species have been de- 
termined. The wood of different trees is studied 
under the microscope to discover in what way it 
differs from other woods closely related. Many 
such results are published for the benefit of both 
the lumber dealer and the general public in the 
form of bulletins. Both the subject of dyewoods 
and that of the many woods now sold as mahogany 
have been investigated in this way. The resulting 
data have been used by many companies and have 
helped to protect the public from frauds. 

Seed Studies. Experiments in reforestation 
are grouped under seed studies, nursery studies, 
and sowing and planting. Considerable work has 
been done in developing the best methods of seed- 
extraction. Much valuable information has been 
gathered on the largest amount of seed that may be 
extracted from pine cones of different species per 
unit of time at different degrees of temperature ; the 
maximum temperature which may be applied to 
seeds of different species without impairing their 
vitality; the germinating power of seed extracted at 
different temperatures; the comparative length of 



88 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

time required for the germination of seed extracted 
with or without artificial heat; and the most 
economical type of seed-extracting plant. Studies 
have been made upon the comparative germina- 
tion of tree seeds in the field and the greenhouse. 
The ultimate success of the plantations being estab- 
lished on the National Forests in a large degree de- 
pends upon the character of the seed used. Hence 
studies are being conducted of the effect of altitude, 
soil, age of the tree, density of stand, insect damage 
and disease infection, and other factors that affect 
the mother tree, upon the character of the seed col- 
lected from those trees, and the growth and form 
of the resulting seedling. Also tests to show the 
effect of the source of seed on the form and growth 
of young seedlings have indicated very clearly that 
with all species the seed grown in the locality where 
the trees are to be planted give as a rule better re- 
sults than seed imported from another region. 

Nursery Studies. Nursery studies endeavor to 
show the most efficient methods for growing young 
trees for field planting for each species of trees. 
It is of great importance to know how much seed to 
sow per foot in the nursery beds; what is the best 
time (spring or fall) for sowing; to what depth the 



ADMINISTRATION 89 

seed should be covered in order to give the highest 
germination ; whether better results are obtained by 
drill sowing or by broadcast sowing; the best 
methods of shading, fertilizing, watering, and culti- 
vating the seed beds; the methods of securing the 
best root development of the young seedlings; 
the best time and method of transplanting from the 
nursery beds to the transplant beds; the best 
methods for retarding spring growth in seedlings to 
be used at high altitudes; and other problems of 
similar nature. 

Forestation Experiments. Experiments in for- 
estation have, year after year, proven that planting 
is much safer than direct seeding and ultimately less 
expensive. For this reason a greater emphasis has 
been placed upon planting studies. These studies 
have attempted to show the best season for planting 
each species; the best methods of planting; the 
most advantageous classes of stock to use ; and what 
the most suitable sites are for each species of tree. 

Studies of Forest Influences. Studies on the in- 
fluence of forests upon stream flow and erosion are 
attempting to furnish important data for American 
conditions upon this subject. At the Wagon 
Wheel Gap Forest Experiment Station in Colorado 



90 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

such a study is being carried on. The purpose of 
the study for the first two or three years has been 
to determine the character of the two streams which 
are to be measured. The forest cover on the two 
watersheds is practically identical. The results so 
far obtained indicate that the influence upon the 
stream flow must be about the same in both cases, 
and, consequently, a comparison of these streams 
after the denudation of one watershed will be a 
very fair test of the influence of the forest cover 
upon the relative height of the flood stage and low- 
water stage, the amount of erosion, and the rate of 
melting of the snow. 

Experimental observations which have been con- 
ducted since 1908 at the various Forest Experiment 
Stations have shown that the forest exercises a de- 
cided moderating influence upon temperature ex- 
tremes, wind motion, and evaporation. Likewise, 
the presence of a forest cover retards the melting of 
snow in the spring, and in this way huge snowbanks 
in the forests feed the nearby streams until late in 
the summer. Forests therefore have been shown 
to conserve the water supply and also causing this 
water to run off slowly rather than in sudden floods. 
Studies have also been conducted on determining 




Figure 29. At the Fort Valley Forest Experiment Station, Co- 
conino National Forest, Arizona. A typical meteorological station 
Forest officer measuring precipitation. Note the shelter which con- 
tains thermometers and also the electrically equipped instruments to 
record the direction and velocity of the wind. 

Figure 30. Forest officer ascertaining the amount of evaporation 
from a free water surface. Fort Valley Forest Experiment Station, 
Flagstaff, Arizona. 



ADMINISTRATION 91 

the effect of cutting timber upon the climate within 
the forest. 

Meteorological Observations. The climatic re- 
quirements of forest types have been studied at the 
Fremont Experiment Station since January 1, 
1910, through experimental observations, and other 
stations have taken up the same problem since that 
date. The first step in this work at the Fremont 
has been to obtain a complete meteorological rec- 
ord as a basis for determining what climatic condi- 
tions are most important in limiting the natural 
range of such important species as Yellow pine, 
Douglas fir, and Engelmann spruce. The data 
collected so far have shown that soil moisture and 
soil temperature are the controlling factors in de- 
termining the existence of the three forest types. 
It has also been shown what climatic conditions 
each of the three types of forest must have in order 
to succeed. This work has since been extended to 
include other types of forest and a meteorological 
station has been established at timber line on Pikes 
Peak. This station, which is at approximately 
11,500 feet, is equipped with self-recording instru- 
ments to measure the climatic factors which obtain 
at that elevation and which mark the uppermost 



92 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

altitudinal limit of tree growth in that locality. 

Such studies as these, based upon systematic 
meteorological observations, have an important 
bearing on all other forest problems. The data se- 
cured in this way especially assist the technical 
foresters in solving the various problems in forest 
management, reforestation, fire protection, and 
land classification, besides giving positive knowl- 
edge of the environment in which our trees live and 
of the factors affecting their growth and reproduc- 
tion. These systematic observations are of prime 
importance if we ever hope to have a science of 
American Forestry. 

Forest Management Studies. Experiments in 
forest management are carried on to determine the 
best methods of cutting National Forest timber to 
secure natural reproduction and at the same time 
to improve the quality and productivity of the re- 
maining stand. These studies are carried on by 
means of permanent sample plots, on which all the 
trees are carefully measured and recorded. First 
the timber is cut on the plots under different sys- 
tems of management, or thinnings or improvement 
cuttings are made. An exact record is kept of the 
amount of timber removed and of the size and dis- 



ADMINISTRATION 93 

tribution of the remaining trees. Measurements 
taken at regular intervals show the precise effect of 
the method used on each plot. Close observations 
of the reproduction which takes place, brush and 
other forms of cover which may establish themselves, 
and changes in soil conditions are recorded. On 
similar sample plots methods of brush disposal, 
methods of marking timber for cutting, and thin- 
ning methods are studied. After logging there are 
several ways in which the resulting slash may be dis- 
posed, depending upon surrounding conditions. 
In some localities the brush must be burned imme- 
diately on account of the fire danger which its pres- 
ence involves; in other places it must be removed 
because it interferes with reproduction; in still 
other places the brush may be scattered over the 
area because there is little fire danger and, in fact, 
the brush has been found to assist and protect re- 
production. All these possibilities must be deter- 
mined by experiments. Likewise in marking tim- 
ber for cutting and in thinning practice various 
methods are possible, depending upon circum- 
stances, the most important of which are the re- 
quirements of the species and the density of the 
forest. 



94 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

Other management studies deal with the deter- 
mination by actual measurement of the volumes 
of trees and stands, and the growth of trees and the 
yields of whole forests. Reliable growth and yield 
data for the different species and types are neces- 
sary to properly handle timber sales as well as for 
forest management. They are also essential for 
determining damages caused by fires and trespass. 

Forest Protection Studies. Studies in forest 
protection endeavor to find the best methods of 
protecting the National Forests from fire, grazing, 
disease, insects, wind, snow, hail, and animals. 
The most efficient protection of the National For- 
ests from fire calls for an accurate, scientific knowl- 
edge of all the factors that enter into the problem. 
Comprehensive studies are undertaken to secure 
the basis for a more scientific method of distrib- 
uting National Forest fire-protecting funds. The 
aim has been to find the degree of intensiveness in 
fire protection warranted by timber, forage, and 
watershed values, as modified by their susceptibility 
to damage by fire. Under the ideal system of al- 
lotting fire-protecting funds, the most valuable re- 
sources, which at the same time are most in danger 
of destruction by fire, should receive the largest 



ADMINISTRATION 95 

amount of funds and therefore the greatest amount 
of protection. Less valuable resources, less sus- 
ceptible to fire danger, should receive protection in 
proportion. Other classes of fire protection studies 
have to do with the various phases of fire preven- 
tion, fire detection, and fire control. Studies have 
also been carried on to determine the rapidity with 
which fire spreads in different forest types, and un- 
der a given set of climatic conditions. 

Protection from Grazing Damage. Studies of 
the effects of grazing upon the natural reproduc- 
tion of forests are conducted with a view to devising 
a system of range control which would minimize 
such injury without requiring the total exclusion 
of the stock from the range. Studies have shown 
that serious damage occurs to seedlings under four 
feet in height during the dry season, on areas con- 
taining poor forage, or which have been overgrazed, 
or where there was little or no underbrush. It was 
found that sheep do twice as much damage as 
cattle. Some of the measures that have been 
adopted to lessen the injury to reproduction by 
sheep and cattle are: the revegetation of over- 
grazed areas, reductions in the amount of stock, 
provisions for the better distribution of stock by 



96 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

the regulation of watering places, and the exclusion 
of sheep from cut-over areas on which reproduction 
is deficient until the seedlings reach a sufficient 
height to be out of the reach of the animals. 

Protection from Insects and Diseases. In co- 
operation with the Bureau of Entomology and the 
Bureau of Plant Industry the Forest Service is 
conducting a large number of studies and inves- 
tigations dealing with the insects and diseases that 
do destructive damage to forests. The direct re- 
sult of these studies will be the gradual eradication 
of predaceous insects and dangerous tree diseases 
from the valuable timber forests of the Gov- 
ernment. Control measures already taken have 
shown the value of exact scientific information. 
On the Klamath National Forest some years ago 
about 900 acres were treated for insect infestation. 
The cost was about $3,000 and the amount of tim- 
ber saved by the eradication of the insects was 
worth over $600,000. Other studies are carried on 
to identify and describe certain classes of insects, 
such, for instance, as those that destroy the seeds of 
trees in the cones. The various families, genera, 
and species of forest insects are studied and de- 
scribed, and the results are published in the form 



ADMINISTRATION 97 

of monographs. Many of these insects are diffi- 
cult to identify and concerning others very little is 
known. Investigations on tree diseases have not 
made such good progress, because tree diseases are 
much more difficult to control. Tree diseases, like 
human diseases, must be prevented instead of con- 
trolled. A general survey of the tree diseases 
prevalent in the National Forests has been made, 
especially in California. Further studies have 
brought to light little known or even unknown dis- 
eases. In California, studies have shown that a 
certain relation exists between old age and disease. 
Incense cedar, for example, seems to become in- 
fested after it reaches maturity at an age of about 
150 years. 

Tree Studies. Commercial tree studies are 
made of important tree species. The results are 
published in the form of monographs dealing with 
the range, silvicultural characteristics, growth, 
yield and management of each tree. These studies 
bring together all the important facts known about 
the tree described, such as: the industrial uses of 
the wood, the conditions under which the tree suc- 
ceeds, the rate of growth in different situations, 
and the most suitable methods of management to 



98 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

secure the highest returns. Tables are included 
to show the volume of the trees at different ages 
and sizes, in cubic feet, in cords, in board feet, etc. 
Studies are also made of the life history and re- 
quirements of important forest trees, often in con- 
nection with commercial studies. Such studies 
cover: local, geographical, and commercial occur- 
rence of the species, the species which are asso- 
ciated with it, the habit of the tree, its soil and cli- 
matic requirements for germination and growth, 
and the various matters connected with its repro- 
duction. Such publications as these give the Forest 
officers much valuable information about the trees 
with which they are dealing, and also furnish the 
only sources of information to students in forest 
schools on the characteristics and requirements of 
the trees important in forestry in this country. 

Grazing Investigations. Grazing investiga- 
tions, being intimately connected with a great 
national industry, have received a considerable 
amount of attention. These studies are confined 
at present to grazing reconnoissance, the reseeding 
of depleted mountain grazing lands, studies in the 
best methods of handling sheep on the range, 
studies of the effect of grazing on the forest, iden- 



ADMINISTRATION 99 

tification of range plants, and the systematic elim- 
ination of poisonous range plants and predatory 
animals. 

Grazing reconnoissance is a stock taking of the 
forage possibilities of a certain piece of range land. 
This work is usually done by organized parties, 
but a small amount is done also by Forest officers in 
spare time. This study aims to collect all the im- 
portant grazing information, such as: the area of 
grazing lands, the kind of forage, the species of 
forage plants, the location of streams, springs, and 
other watering places for stock, the location of 
stock driveways, drift fences, and cabins, the loca- 
tion of timber lands that do and those that do not 
contain forage, and many other matters pertaining 
to the grazing of stock. The maps and field data 
secured furnish the basis for range improvement 
and more intensive range management. Up to 
date, over 12,288,885 acres of range lands have 
been covered in this way. 

All intensive forage and range experiments are 
conducted at the Great Basin Experiment Station 
on the Manti National Forest. Here intensive 
problems are carried on under controlled condi- 
tions and under constant and careful observation 



100 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

and the necessary care and thoroughness is given 
to them which could only be given them at a fully 
equipped experiment station. All grazing inves- 
tigations on the National Forests are carried on 
under the direct supervision of this station. 

The seeding of depleted grazing lands is ac- 
complished either by direct artificial seeding or 
through rotation grazing. Under the former 
method the seed of native or foreign grasses and 
other range plants are sown on the range, in the 
attempt to increase the forage crop. By rotation 
grazing, that is, permitting the stock to feed first 
on one area and then on another, the grasses and 
forage plants are allowed to recuperate from the 
effect of grazing and allowed to reproduce. The 
stock is excluded from one area while the seed is 
maturing, and after the seed has matured and be- 
come scattered on the area the stock is allowed to 
graze on it. As the stock feeds on the plants it 
tramples the seed into the ground and thereby fur- 
nishes favorable conditions for the germination of 
the seed. There are few parts of the National 
Forests that cannot be completely regenerated by 
the adoption of either one or the other of these two 
methods. 



ADMINISTRATION 101 

To reduce interference with the natural processes 
of reforestation, damage to tree growth and water- 
sheds, depletion of grazing lands, and the waste of 
valuable forest resources, it is important to develop 
improved methods of managing different kinds of 
live stock on different types of land. These new 
methods of handling stock have been applied only 
to sheep. The lambing of sheep in small in- 
cisures on the open range has resulted in the sav- 
ing of a large percentage of the lambs. The new 
method of bedding sheep where they happen to be 
at nightfall has been found to have many advan- 
tages over the old system of returning them to an 
established bedding ground a number of nights in 
succession. The results have been better sheep, 
less damage to range, and more feed. 

It was not so many years ago that practically 
nothing was known about the various plants which 
make up the forage crop on the National Forests. 
Forest officers could not identify the plants or say 
whether they were of value for forage or not. 
This made it difficult to secure the use of each range 
by the class of stock to which it was best adapted, 
to apply deferred and rotation grazing and to 
eliminate losses from poisonous plants. This ob- 



102 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

stack to efficient range management was overcome 
when a system of plant collection and identification 
was started by the Forest Service. Some 23,000 
specimens of about 3,000 different species have 
been collected on the National Forests, identified 
by specialists and the collector informed as to the 
value of each species. The identification of range 
plants is the first step toward securing an intimate 
knowledge of the life history of the plant. Such 
information as the soil and moisture requirements, 
date of flowering and seeding, requirements for re- 
production, and its relation to other range plants 
is of the utmost importance if the maximum forage 
crop is to be produced on the range each year. 
This constitutes the latest stage in the development 
of grazing studies. 

Investigations Dealing with Poisonous Plants 
and Predatory Animals. In cooperation with the 
Bureau of Plant Industry the study of poisonous 
plants and the means for reducing the losses from 
them has been undertaken. The death camas, the 
lupines, the larkspurs, some of the wild cherries, 
locoweed, and practically all species of zygadenus 
are plants that have been found to cause death 
among stock. While the handling of stock to 










'- 


c 


ir. 


O 






fC 


-*-T 




ce 


OJ 


J* 


o 


O 


B 


p j __ t 


; — 


g 






0- 


.X 






ce 


cS 


+J 


r< 


w 


«J 


"_ 




cc 






3 


C 


X 




0/ 










pM 




o 




ce 


§ 










DC 




*_ 


o 



ADMINISTRATION 103 

avoid the poison areas can eliminate the losses to a 
small extent, it has been found that the most ex- 
peditious remedy is in digging out and destroying 
the poisonous plants. On the Stanislaus National 
Forest in California, a cattle range of about 14,000 
acres, containing about 67 acres of larkspur, was 
cleared of this weed at a cost of about $695. The 
average loss of cattle in previous years had been 
about 34 head. Following the eradication of the 
larkspur the loss was 4 head. The net saving was 
valued at $1,800. Similar operations are con- 
ducted on other Forests. 

The work of the destruction of predatory ani- 
mals has been transferred to the hands of the 
Bureau of Biological Survey. Formerly special 
Forest Service hunters were detailed to hunt the 
animals, and these men used to kill about 4,000 a 
year. The Biological Survey, however, still fur- 
nishes traps, ammunition and poison for the destruc- 
tion of predatory animals to Forest officers, who do 
this work in connection with their regular duties. 
Bears, coyotes, mountain lions, lynxes, wildcats, 
and wolves are the animals that do the most of the 
damage. What makes the problem a difficult one 
is that the wolf and the coyote, the two species 



104 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

which do the greatest damage to game and domes- 
tic stock, are transient visitors on the Forests which 
frequent the Forests only when game and stock is 
most abundant. They are bred, born, and spend 
the greater portion of their lives in the foothills 
outside of the National Forests. Under these 
conditions the animals killed on the Forests are 
quickly replaced by others from outside. For this 
reason the matter was handed over to the Bio- 
logical Survey, which will destroy these animals 
throughout the public domain and the results will 
be much more permanent and effective. 

Besides the investigations carried on by the For- 
est Experiment Stations many studies are carried 
on dealing with forest products. The purpose of 
the Branch of Forest Research of the Forest Serv- 
ice is to promote the most profitable and econom- 
ical utilization of forest products by means of ex- 
periments and investigations. The work of the 
Branch falls into three divisions: National Forest 
utilization, the work of the Forest Products Labor- 
atory, and industrial investigations. 

National Forest Utilization Experiments. The 
work of the proper utilization of the products of 
the National Forests is under the supervision of 



ADMINISTRATION 105 

the District Forester and the Assistant District 
Forester in charge of Forest Products in the dis- 
tricts. Only three out of the seven districts have 
such an organization. These men have charge of 
all problems connected with the use and marketing 
of National Forest timber, the construction of 
improvements on the Forests, and related adminis- 
trative questions. The following problems are in- 
cluded: studies of existing industries, covering 
methods and costs of manufacture, grades, and 
other specifications of manufactured products and 
the prices obtained for such products; the collec- 
tion of market prices, mill scale studies to deter- 
mine grades and overrun, and investigations in kiln 
drying ; waste in existing industries and closer util- 
ization possible through improved methods; new 
uses for National Forest species through wood 
preservation; introduction of industries which will 
result in closer or more profitable utilization, as the 
manufacture of pulp and paper, wood distillation, 
turpentining, and the manufacture of secondary 
wood products; overcoming prejudices against 
particular species or classes of material; general 
questions of timber supply and demand, markets 
and 'reight rates; advice and assistance in the con- 



106 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

struction of National Forest improvements, par- 
ticularly in the use of wood preservatives; advice 
and assistance to persons on any matter connected 
with the utilization of National Forest timber; the 
preparation of publications upon subjects covered 
by investigations which have practical or scientific 
value; and demonstrations of methods or processes 
developed by the Forest Service for the benefit of 
local communities. 

The presence on a Forest of large quantities of 
unmarketable timber, or dead timber, or of mate- 
rial not used in current sales would mean an inves- 
tigation of methods for its utilization. Local 
problems affecting wood-using industries in manu- 
facturing or marketing timber, such as sap stain in 
lumber, difficulties in seasoning lumber, and the 
effect of different silvicultural methods upon the 
average grades of lumber manufactured, are also 
taken up with the Products experts at the District 
Office. Also in the construction of National For- 
est improvements the Forest Supervisor may need 
assistance in applying wood preservatives to tele- 
phone poles, fence posts, and other material. 
Sometimes timber treating plants are erected, if 
necessary, to treat not only material used on the 



ADMINISTRATION 107 

National Forests, but also material used by local 
residents near a Forest. 

One of the important problems which confronts 
the Office of Products in the various National 
Forest districts is the utilization of the so-called 
low grade or inferior tree species. The terms 
"high grade" and "low grade" or "inferior," as 
used at present, merely indicate the lumberman's 
valuation of the timber from his point of view and 
according to his standards of value. If a certain 
species will not produce clear lumber, which is 
straight-grained, easily worked, and not subject to 
splitting or warping, it is at once classed as inferior. 
But the Forest Products specialists each year are 
making progress in demonstrating that wood, in 
order to be of marketable value, does not neces- 
sarily need to be cut in the form of lumber. It is 
also being shown that proper methods of drying 
lumber make possible the use of inferior woods for 
lumber and manufacturing purposes. 

The Office of Forest Products in California has 
made considerable progress in overcoming the lum- 
berman's prejudices against the inferior species in 
the California National Forests and the species are 
beginning to find wider use and to command better 



108 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

prices. The discovery that Incense cedar was 
valuable for making lead pencils caused the price of 
this so-called "inferior" species to jump from an 
average of $10 per thousand feet in logs f. o. b. 
cars to as high as $16. White fir, a species re- 
ligiously avoided by lumbermen in the woods, was 
found to have special properties which make it 
very valuable as a pulp wood. One mill in Cali- 
fornia now uses annually upwards of 30,000 cords 
of it for making paper. Lodgepole pine has been 
shown to have a great value for telephone and tele- 
graph poles when treated with preservatives. It 
was found to be 12 per cent, stronger than Western 
Red cedar, the standard pole timber, has a more 
desirable taper and can be shipped for less money. 
Many other cases could be cited from this and other 
National Forest Districts. 

Forest Products' Laboratory 'Experiments. 
The work of the Forest Products Laboratory in- 
cludes investigations on the mechanical properties 
of wood; the physical and chemical characteristics 
and properties of wood ; air seasoning and artificial 
drying of wood ; agencies destructive to wood ; wood 
preservation ; wood distillation ; production of naval 
stores; and the production of pulp and paper and 



ADMINISTRATION 109 

other chemical products of wood. This work is 
carried on at the Laboratory and sometimes in 
cooperation with the National Forests and district 
experts. At the Laboratory there is a director 
and a large staff of technical and scientific men, 
such as chemists, physicists, and engineers, each of 
whom is an expert in his particular line of work. 

A good deal of attention is given to testing the 
strength of woods grown in the United States, as 
a means of assisting users to select the species best 
adapted to a given purpose, or to find substitutes 
for species which are becoming difficult to obtain. 
The strength of a good many species used for 
structural timbers has been tested. The species 
most used for this class of timber are the Southern 
pines, Douglas fir, Norway pine, Tamarack, and 
Red spruce. An important discovery was made 
several years ago that Western hemlock, generally 
considered an inferior timber, showed an average 
strength 88 per cent, as great as that of Douglas 
fir, one of the best construction timbers in the 
United States. Strength tests have also been 
made on fire-killed timber and these have shown 
that timber killed by fire is almost as strong as 
green timber. Other tests have been made to de- 



110 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

termine the effect of preservative treatment upon 
the strength of timber. As a result of the large 
number and variety of strength tests carried on by 
this Laboratory the United States Government 
now has a more thorough and comprehensive col- 
lection of data on the mechanical properties of 
wood than any other nation. 

Many studies are also conducted to determine 
the physical properties and the structure of the dif- 
ferent kinds of wood grown in this country. The 
minute structure of the wood of many of our native 
species has been studied by means of microscopic 
slides. A study has also been made of a large 
number of species to determine the specific gravity 
of the actual wood substance. Other tests are 
made to determine the specific heat of woods. 

The drying or seasoning of woods, more espe- 
cially of certain species which have been found 
difficult to season, has received a good deal of at- 
tention. A new type of kiln, invented by a Forest 
Service man, has been devised to season such woods 
as the eucalyptus, which has always been very diffi- 
cult to handle in drying. Western larch has been 
seasoned with a loss of only 5 per cent., whereas 
the loss in ordinary commercial kilns usually ran be- 



ADMINISTRATION 111 

tween 60 and 70 per cent. As a result, many 
manufacturers have remodeled their old kilns to 
embody the new Forest Service methods. A new 
method has also been developed for the rapid dry- 
kilning of Eastern hemlock, which has great com- 
mercial possibilities. 

Experiments in wood preservation have to do 
with the kind of preservatives it is best to use, the 
character of the wood to be treated, and the 
methods of injection. Experiments have devel- 
oped the best methods for treating railroad ties, 
mine timbers, fence posts, wood paving blocks, 
telephone and telegraph poles, and wharf piling. 
Untreated mine timbers have been found to last 
only from 1 to 2 years, while treated ones are 
usually entirely sound at the end of 4 years. Un- 
treated railroad ties last from 5 to 10 years, while 
treated ones will last over 15. Such experi- 
ments as these have shown the advisability of 
treating all kinds of timbers with creosote or zinc 
chloride, or some other preservative. Many new 
preservatives are being proposed or marketed each 
year by various companies or individuals. These 
are all tested to determine their value to prevent 
the growth of fungi in the wood. Their efficiency 



112 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

varies greatly and many of them have been shown 
to have very small value. 

Studies in wood distillation seek to find new 
woods which can be used for this industry, new 
and more efficient methods which can be employed, 
and new uses for wood waste and stumps. Char- 
coal, wood alcohol, acetate of lime, and tar are 
derived from the distillation of such woods as 
beech, birch, and maple, to which tar oils and tur- 
pentine are added for the pines and other resinous 
woods. These by-products of wood distillation 
have many uses, as well as the many products which 
are, in turn, made from these by-products. Char- 
coal is used in the manufacture of black powder, 
acetic acid is used in the manufacture of explosives, 
and wood alcohol is converted into formaldehyde 
for disinfection against contagious diseases. By 
means of temperature control methods developed at 
the Laboratory in the destructive distillation of 
hardwoods, the net gam per annum of one com- 
pany's plant was over $17,000. About one-half of 
the plants of the country have adopted the new 
method developed by the Forest Products Labora- 
tory. 

Experiments have been conducted by the Labor- 



ADMINISTRATION 113 

atory in the distillation of the needles of coniferous 
trees and the distillation of the crude gum of some 
of the important timber trees of the South and 
West. The oils distilled from many trees in this 
way have found great use for various purposes. 
Shoeblacking owes its peculiar aromatic odor, 
faintly suggestive of the deep spruce and hemlock 
woods, to an oil which is distilled from these same 
kind of needles. Evergreen tree leaf oils are used 
for the perfume of soap, and in the manufacture of 
liniments, insecticides, and medicinal preparations. 

Investigations have been carried on at the Forest 
Products Laboratory in making artificial silk from 
sawdust. The industry has already attained con- 
siderable proportions. It consists principally of 
converting cellulose into viscose, which, in turn, is 
manufactured into an almost endless number and 
variety of silk and other goods varying from sau- 
sage casings to silk hose and tapestries. Sawdust 
is used also in the manufacture of inlaid linoleum 
and dynamite. 

Experiments in naval stores are attempting to 
improve the old methods of harvesting turpentine, 
which have proven very destructive to the forests. 
With the approaching exhaustion of the Southern 



114 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

Pinery as a field for the naval stores industry, it 
has become more and more important to find other 
species for this purpose. Consequently the Labor- 
atory has conducted experiments with the various 
pines on the National Forests in California, Colo- 
rado, Arizona, and New Mexico. 

A great many pulp and paper investigations are 
also conducted by this Laboratory. The large size 
of the industry and the threatened exhaustion of 
the native spruce forests which furnish the prin- 
cipal supply are circumstances which call for in- 
tensive investigations. About nine-tenths of the 
paper which we use is made from wood, and the 
amount of wood which is converted into paper an- 
nually has reached almost 5,000,000 cords. There 
are over 2,500 newspapers in the United States, 
and it is said that a single issue of a New York 
Sunday paper consumes the trees on about 15 acres 
of forest. The main object of the work at the 
Laboratory has been to use other species of wood 
for the manufacture of paper to offset the fast 
waning supplies of spruce. Poplar, hemlock, pine 
and balsam are now being used in considerable 
quantities. News and wrapping paper has also 
been successfully made from many National Forest 




,- _ 




Figure 32. A plank of Incense cedar affected by a disease known 
as "pin rot.'" By cutting the cedar timber when it is mature this 
can be largely avoided. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo 
by the author. 

Figure 33. The western pine forests will some day be a great 
source for naval stores. By distilling the crude resin of the Jeffrey 
pine a light volatile oil — abietene — is secured which has great healing 
and curative properties. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo 
by the author. 



ADMINISTRATION 115 

species, including Sitka spruce, Western hemlock, 
Engelmann spruce, Red fir, White fir, and Lodge- 
pole pine. Kraft paper has heen made and manu- 
factured into suitcases, bags, wall coverings, twine, 
and similar articles. Not only has the Forest 
Products Laboratory brought into use species of 
trees never before tried for paper making, but it 
has also improved some of the old methods of 
paper making to such an extent that the results 
have been adopted by various large paper mills. 

Many strength tests are conducted with packing 
boxes. The railroad companies of the United 
States are paying annually claims amounting to 
many millions of dollars because of goods damaged 
in shipment. Much of the damage is preventable 
through properly constructed boxes. Tests con- 
ducted at the Laboratory have shown for canned- 
food boxes an increase in strength of 300 per cent, 
by the use of four additional nails in each end of 
the box. The results of these tests are being 
rapidly adopted by manufacturers and canners. 

The dyeing principle of the Osage orange wood 
was not used prior to the investigations conducted 
by the Laboratory. The value of this material has 
been so conclusively shown that about one million 



116 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

dollars' worth of the dye is now being manufac- 
tured annually in the United States and practically 
all from material which was formerly wasted. 

The discovery that sodium fluoride is superior 
to sodium carbonate in preventing sap stain in lum- 
ber promises to reduce materially the present esti- 
mated loss of $7,000,000 from this cause. 

Industrial Investigations. The function of the 
Office of Industrial Investigations of the Branch 
of Forest Research is to conduct statistical and in- 
dustrial studies of uses of wood in the United 
States. The aim of these investigations is to de- 
termine methods and conditions under which wood 
is now used ; the marketable products obtained from 
it; tendencies in methods of manufacture; and im- 
proved methods possible, especially in the util- 
ization of waste. When practicable, such investi- 
gations are followed by the commercial application 
of their results. This office also conducts all sta- 
tistical investigations of the production and use of 
forest products. 

The work of industrial investigations includes 
the following: collection and compilation of statis- 
tics on the production and consumption of forest 
products, prevailing market and stumpage prices, 



ADMINISTRATION 117 

imports and exports, and transportation rates; the 
compilation and study of specifications of rough 
and manufactured forest products; studies of lum- 
ber manufacture and wood-using industries as to 
methods, forms of material, waste, costs, equip- 
ment, substitution of one species for another, and 
improvements through a more conservative use of 
raw material; studies of special problems or fea- 
tures of wood-using industries; advice and assist- 
ance to States, industries and individuals along 
such lines of work; and the dissemination of results 
by publications. 

Many studies in wood utilization are made not 
only of certain industries like the shingle, or the 
lumber industry, but also dealing with the indus- 
tries of particular sections of the country and with 
the various States. These investigations in the 
States show the kinds and amounts of woods re- 
quired by the various industries, the purposes for 
which the various species are employed, and the 
extent of their use. So far the wood-using indus- 
tries of 35 States have been studied and the results 
published. 

Records of lumber prices for important woods 
are compiled quarterly. These figures are useful 



118 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

in establishing timber sale prices on the National 
Forests. Statistics as to the annual consumption 
of lumber in the country are also compiled by this 
office. 

The wood waste exchange was established in 
1914 by the Forest Service. It consists of two lists 
of manufacturers, which are sent out quarterly to 
persons desiring them. One of these is of "Oppor- 
tunities to Sell Waste" and contains the names of 
firms which use sawdust and small pieces of wood. 
This list is sent to people having waste for sale. 
The other list is of "Opportunities to Buy Waste," 
and gives the names of concerns which have waste to 
dispose of. This list is sent to people who wish to 
buy material. No charge is made for this service, 
and at the present time over 500 cooperators are 
using this exchange. 

By the use of this exchange, makers of wooden 
novelties have been successful in finding supplies 
of material near their plants. Other wood-work- 
ing industries have been able to dispose of their 
waste at higher prices than they could otherwise 
have obtained. Many firms were located within 
short distances of each other, but until recently 
have had no way of getting together. A Philadel- 



ADMINISTRATION L19 

phia firm, engaged in the manufacture of composi- 
tion flooring, has been able to obtain a portion of 
its sawdust Prom a New York Lumber company. A 
New York woodworking establishment disposed of 
its waste pieces of white oak and sugar maple to a 
maker of wooden novelties in Connecticut for use 
in the manufacture of furniture knobs. A flock 
maker of Connecticut secured waste material for 
making clock boxes from the planing mill of a New 
York lumber company. 



CHAPTER III 

THE PROTECTION OF THE 
NATIONAL FORESTS 

The resources of the National Forests may be 
injured or destroyed in many ways. Fire may 
burn the timber and young growth; insects and 
tree diseases may damage or kill timber, and certain 
persons may innocently or willfully commit tres- 
pass on National Forest land and use the resources 
without permit. Then also, the fish and game of 
the Forests must be protected from unlawful shoot- 
ing and trapping, and the water issuing from Na- 
tional Forest streams must be kept free from pollu- 
tion, to protect the public health. 

PROTECTION FROM FIRE 

Forest Fire Danger on the National Forests. 
Practically all the resources of the National Forests 
are subject to severe injury or even to entire de- 
struction by fire. It is an ever-present danger on 
the National Forests, due to their great inacces- 

120 



PROTECTION 121 

sibility, their dry climate, and to other unfavorable 
conditions. There are probably few forest regions 
in the world where the danger of fire is greater than 
on the National Forests. The great size of the 
individual Forests, as compared with the size of the 
available patrolling force, the difficulty of reaching 
remote areas across miles of wilderness, the dry 
air and light rainfall in most parts of the western 
United States, the prevalence of lightning storms 
in the mountains, the sparseness of the population, 
and the constant use of lire in the industries and 
the daily life of the people, all combine to make the 
hazard exceptional. 

Importance of Fire Protection. Forest fires 
when uncontrolled mean the loss of human lives, 
the destruction of homes, live stock, forage, timber 
and watershed cover. Besides the direct damage 
to the National Forest resources it defeats all at- 
tempts to practice forestry ; it nullifies all efforts of 
forest management, such as regulation of cutting 
to insure a second crop of timber, the planting of 
denuded areas, and the restriction of grazing to 
assist reproduction. Fire destroys the very im- 
provements which are constructed annually at 
great expense. In other words, protection from 



122 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

fire is the first and most important problem on the 
National Forests without which no operation or 
transaction, however small, can be undertaken. 

If the problem of fire protection is the most im- 
portant task confronting a Forest officer on the Na- 
tional Forests, then certainly fire prevention is next 
in importance. Obviously it is easier to prevent 
fires than to fight them. All large conflagrations 
have their origin in small fires which if they could 
be reached in time could probably be put out 
by one man. But in regions remote from water 
and supplies fires may start and reach vast propor- 
tions before a party of fire fighters can get to the 
scene, no matter how promptly the start is made. 
By far the best plan, therefore, is to prevent fires 
rather than to depend upon fighting them after 
they get started. To this end the. Forest Service 
has given the most earnest consideration. During 
the dangerous season the main attention of Forest 
Supervisors and Forest Rangers is devoted to pre- 
venting fire. Extra men are employed, the For- 
ests are systematically patrolled, and a careful 
lookout is maintained from high points. Roads and 
trails are so built that every part of the Forests 
may be quickly reached with pack animals. Tools 



PROTECTION 123 

and food for fire fighters are stored at convenient 
places. The Ranger stations and lookout houses 
are connected with the office of the Forest Super- 
visor by telephone, so that men may be quickly 
assembled to fight a dangerous fire which the pa- 
trolman cannot subdue alone. Each Forest Su- 
pervisor endeavors to secure the cooperation of all 
forest users in the work of preventing fires and in 
reporting and helping to fight them in case they get 
started. 

Probably the beginning point of any discussion 
of forest fires is a consideration of their causes. 
The Forest Service has kept careful records year 
after year (by calendar and not fiscal years) con- 
cerning the cause, the damage, the area burned 
over, the cost of fighting and many other matters. 
During the calendar year 1917 there were 7,814 
forest fires on the National Forests. Of these the 
National Forests of California had to contend with 
1,862. Of the total number of forest fires 40 per 
cent, were confined to less than % of an acre, 28 
per cent, to less than 10 acres, while 32 per cent, 
spread over areas greater than 10 acres. The large 
percentage of small fires shows how efficiently the 
National Forest fire protection organization works 



124 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

in keeping the area burned over to the lowest possi- 
ble acreage. 

Causes of Forest Fires on the National Forests. 
Forest fires on the National Forests originate in 
many different ways. In 1917, lightning caused 
27 per cent.; unknown agencies, 17 per cent.; 
campers, 17 per cent.; incendiaries, 12 per cent.; 
railroads, 13 per cent.; brush burning, 7 per cent.; 
saw mills, 3 per cent., and all other causes, 4 per 
cent. Thus it will be seen that a very large per- 
centage, at least 60 per cent., of the fires are at- 
tributable to human agencies and are therefore pre- 
ventable. At least 27 per cent, of the fires, those 
attributed to lightning, are not preventable, and 
the only way to combat those is for the Forest officer 
to get to them as soon as possible after they get 
started. The preventable fires, however, may be 
arrested at their source, that is, by popular educa- 
tion dealing with the use of fire in the woods these 
causes can be greatly reduced and, in time, no doubt, 
eliminated. Therefore, the fire protection problem 
immediately resolves itself into two almost distinct 
phases of action — fire prevention and fire control. 

Just how these various agencies start fires may 
be of interest. Railroads cause fires by their loco- 



PROTECTION 125 

motives sending out sparks through the smoke- 
stack or dropping hot ashes along the right-of-way. 
These sparks alight in inflammahle material, such 
as dry grass and leaves, and start a fire. Light- 
ning sets fire to trees, especially dead and dry ones. 
In the California mountains, lightning storms with- 
out rain are frequent and these do great damage. 
The author has seen as many as nine forest fires 
started by a single lightning storm inside of 
half an hour. Incendiary fires are set by people 
with varying intent. How many are set with 
malicious intent, just to see the forests burn, is not 
known, but many fires are started by people setting 
fires to drive game, to improve the pasture, to make 
traveling through the woods easier, or for other 
reasons. Brush burning includes those fires which 
start from settlers clearing land and burning the 
brush and thickets. Campers cause a large per- 
centage of the fires by leaving their camp fires 
burning. Instead of extinguishing them before 
they leave camp, careless people let them burn; 
a wind blows a few sparks into some dry leaves or 
grass nearby, and the fire is started. Many forest 
fires also start around logging camps by sparks es- 
caping from logging engines, or by setting fire to 



126 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

the slash that is left after logging and allowing 
these fires to get beyond control. 

Behavior of Forest Fires. Fires behave differ- 
ently, once they get started, depending upon the 
character of the timber, the amount of wind, and 
the degree of inflammabilit}^ of the forest cover. 
Ground fires burn the inflammable dry grass, 
needles, dead twigs, etc., on the ground ; crown fires 
are much more severe and, being usually fanned by 
a heavy wind, run through the tops or crowns of the 
trees; brush fires burn the bushes and dry shrubs 
from 5 to 10 feet high; timber fires consume the 
entire forest — crown, stem, ground cover, and un- 
dergrowth — and usually occur in timber that stands 
close together. 

Losses by Forest Fires on the National Forests. 
The results of forest fires naturally vary with the 
kind and intensity of the fire. Crown and timber 
fires do the most damage, and ground and brush 
fires do less. While the ground fires and brush 
fires seem to do very little damage to the valuable 
timber, still they may greatly reduce the productive 
power of the soil and destroy the watershed cover. 
Severe ground fires may kill valuable timber by 
girdling the trees. The great fires of August, 1910, 



PROTECTION 127 

which swept northern Idaho and western Mon- 
tana destroyed millions of dollars' worth of timber 
and 85 human lives, and cost the United States 
$839,000 for fire fighting. These were timber fires 
and they occurred for the most part in valuable 
stands of dense timber. 

The forest fire losses on the National Forests for 
the last 9 years show a very great and gradual 
reduction of losses due to forest fires. In 1908, the 
total loss through fires was $451,188 and in 1909 
it was $297,275. In 1910, the year of the great 
fires in Montana and Idaho, there were very heavy 
losses in timber and human lives, due to an unusual 
combination of dry weather and high winds. But 
in that year the fire organization was not complete ; 
it had never really been tried out. In this year the 
organization received its first severe test, and while 
it did the best it could with the available men and 
equipment, the situation in Idaho pointed out con- 
clusively the weak points and the short-comings. 
The proof of these statements is found in the statis- 
tics of the next 5 years, when the average total loss 
for 1911 to 1915, inclusive, was $293,000, and, it 
must be remembered, several of these years were 
equally as unfavorable,. so far as dry weather and 



128 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

high winds were concerned, as the year 1910. Dur- 
ing these years, however, the fire fighting organ- 
ization had a good chance to be tried out thor- 
oughly; for, as is quite evident, experience is the 
greatest teacher in this kind of work. During the 
calendar year 1916 the fire losses reached a new low 
level, compared to other years, the losses amount- 
ing to only $198,599. In 1917 they were higher. 

The Forest Fire Problem Stated. Having seen 
a little of the causes, behavior and results of forest 
fires on the National Forests, it is comparatively 
easy to state the forest fire problem as it occurs on 
the National Forests. Briefly stated, it is this: 
With the funds, organization and equipment that 
are available, the aim of the Forest Service is to 
keep the area burned over each year (and therefore 
the damage done) down to an accepted reasonable 
minimum. But the problem is not as easily worked 
out as it is stated, due, largely, to a great many 
uncontrollable and variable factors which cannot be 
foreseen in advance, the most important of which 
are the weather conditions. As has been said be- 
fore, there are two general ways of keeping the 
area burned over down to an accepted reasonable 
minimum: either prevent the fires from getting 





Figure 35. A forest fire lookout station on the summit of Broke- 
off Mountain, elevation 9,500 feet. Lassen Xational Forest, Cali- 
fornia. Photo by the author. 

Figure 36. Turner Mountain lookout station, Lassen Xational 
Forest, California. This is a 10 ft. by 10 ft. cabin with a stove and 
with folding bed, table, and chairs. The forest officer stationed here 
watches for forest fires day and night throughout the fire season. 
Photo by the author. 



PROTECTION 129 

started (as in the case of those started by human 
agencies) or, after they get started, to get to them 
with men and fire fighting implements in the short- 
est possible time after they are found. The former 
is called fire prevention, and the latter fire suppres- 
sion or control. How the organization of the Na- 
tional Forests solves these two problems is of the 
greatest interest. 

Fire Prevention. The measures employed for 
fire prevention may be either administrative, legis- 
lative or educative in nature. 

The most important administrative measures em- 
ployed to prevent fire are those that aim to reduce 
the amount of inflammable material in the Na- 
tional Forests. This is done in many different 
ways. The free use timber policy enables Rangers 
to give away much dead timber, both standing and 
down. Timber operators cutting on the National 
Forests are required by the Forest Service contract 
to remove dead snags, which are a fire menace, from 
the timber sale area. Where there is fire danger, 
all slashing resulting from such sales must be 
burned or otherwise disposed of. While grazing 
is usually not considered a measure to prevent fires, 
still grass lands that have not been grazed over 



130 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

become very dry in the fall and are a dangerous 
fire menace. Wherever it is feasible, old slash left 
by lumbermen on private lands ad j acent or near to 
the National Forests are burned, when the fire can 
be confined to a small area. Another administra- 
tive measure is the reduction of the causes of fires 
by a patrol force. Forest Guards travel along the 
highways where there is most traffic and most dan- 
ger. Their presence often is enough to remind 
campers, hunters and fishermen to put their camp 
fires out before leaving them. These patrolmen 
mix with the people and, if necessary, remind them 
in a courteous way to be careful to extinguish their 
camp fires before breaking camp. 

Most of the necessary legislative measures for 
preventing forest fires already exist. The Na- 
tional Forest force is seeking merely to obtain a 
strict enforcement of existing laws. Railroads are 
required to use spark-arresters on their locomotives 
and to provide for keeping their rights-of-way free 
from inflammable material. Logging camps must 
also prevent the destruction of National Forest 
timber by fire by using spark-arresters on all log- 
ging engines. The Forest officers are ever on 



PROTECTION 131 

the alert for the detection and apprehension of 
campers for leaving fires unextinguished and in- 
cendiaries for starting fires willfully. These care- 
less individuals are arrested by them without war- 
rant, either under the Federal laws, if the fire oc- 
curred on National Forest lands, or under the State 
law, if it occurred outside of government lands. 

Educational measures are for the purpose of edu- 
cating both the local forest-using public and the 
general public who may travel through the Forests 
in the careful use of fires in the forests. Forest 
officers, especially Rangers, come into personal 
touch with local residents and users, that is, the 
ranchers, stockmen, business men, loggers, campers, 
hunters, fishermen and others. Such people are 
often reminded by personal appeals by the Forest 
officers. Most of them have learned by this time, 
because of having been called upon to help fight 
fires at one time or another, and having gotten a 
taste of the result of other people's carelessness. 
Many written appeals are also sent out by the Su- 
pervisor and are slipped into the envelopes when 
grazing permits and other official documents are 
mailed. One of these written appeals, and prob- 



132 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

ably the one that has been used most widely, is 
known as the six rules for the prevention of fires 
in the mountains: 

1. Matches. — Be sure your match is out. Break it in two be- 

fore you throw it away. 

2. Tobacco. — Throw pipe ashes and cigar or cigarette stumps 

in the dust of the road and stamp or pinch out the fire 
before leaving them. Don't throw them into the brush, 
leaves, or needles. 

3. Making camp. — Build a small camp fire. Build it in the 

open, not against a tree or log, or near brush. Scrape 
away the trash from all around it. 

4. Leaving camp. — Never leave a camp fire, even for a short 

time, without quenching it with water or earth. 

5. Bonfires. — Never build bonfires in windy weather or where 

there is the slightest danger of their escaping from con- 
trol. Don't make them larger than you need. 

6. Fighting fires. — If you find a fire try to put it out. If you 

can't, get word of it to the nearest United States forest 
ranger or State fire warden at once. Keep in touch with 
the rangers. 

Besides these kinds of appeals, many kinds of 
fire warnings are posted at conspicuous places along 
roads and trails to remind the public to be careful 
with fire in the Forests. 

An attempt is also made to reach the general pub- 
lic, that is, those living outside the local communi- 
ties, but who occasionally travel through and use 




Figure 37. A fire line cut through the low bush-like growth of 
"Chaparral" on the Angeles National Forest, California. This "Cha- 
parral" is of great value for regulating stream flow. The streams 
are used for water power, domestic purposes, and for irrigating 
many of the largest lemon and orange groves of southern California. 

Figure 38. A forest officers' temporary camp while fighting forest 
fires. Near Oregon National Forest, Oregon. 



PROTECTION 133 

the National Forests. Many hundreds of thou- 
sands travel through the Forests every year by au- 
tomobile or by other conveyances. These people 
camp in the Forests, fish, hunt, and enjoy the cool 
climate and beautiful scenery. Before they start 
on their trips, that is, while they are still in their 
home towns, and also while they are on their way, 
many means have been devised to reach them. 
They are confronted with newspaper advertise- 
ments, folders, booklets, and other printed matter. 
In towns and cities, public meetings, lectures, ex- 
hibits, expositions, county fairs, commercial clubs, 
and the chambers of commerce, all help, either di- 
rectly or indirectly, by one means or another, to in- 
form the people of the great fire danger on the 
National Forests. Even the letters sent out by the 
District Forester and the Supervisors have written 
appeals affixed to the outside of the envelopes by 
means of a rubber stamp. In short, every possible 
means is used to educate the public that uses the Na- 
tional Forests and in whose interest, in fact, the 
Forests are being maintained and protected. 

Fire Suppression. So much for the problem of 
fire prevention. In case a fire does get started, and 
there are thousands of them on the National For- 



134 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

ests every year, the problem, as has been said before, 
consists of getting men and tools to it in the shortest 
possible time, in order to keep the damage down to 
the lowest possible point. To do this, a vast or- 
ganization has been formed by the Forest Service, 
which is not unlike the Minute Man organization 
of Revolutionary days. A brief outline of this or- 
ganization and how it works when a fire starts will 
give my reader a still better idea of what the Forest 
Service is doing in forest fire protection. But be- 
fore speaking of this organization, a few prelim- 
inary matters are of interest; they deal with the 
manner of distributing fire protection funds, forest 
fire history, and the study of weather conditions. 

How Forest Fire Funds Are Distributed. It 
devolves upon the Forest Supervisor and also the 
District Forester to apportion the appropriation 
allotted for fire protection in the most economical 
and efficient manner. First of all, the money is 
allotted to the various Forests in proportion to their 
needs. These needs are measured by the size of the 
Forest, the value of its resources, the length of the 
dangerous dry season, the fire liability or the 
amount of money loss in case of fire, the fire hazard 



PROTECTION 135 

or the degree to which an area is subject to fire 
danger, the difficulty of prevention and control and 
many other factors. These same factors are em- 
ployed to apportion the Supervisor's allotment of 
money to the various Ranger districts on his Forest. 
Probably the most difficult factors for the Forest 
Supervisor to appraise on each Ranger district are 
the fire liability and the fire hazard. Fire liability 
has to do with the amount of damage a fire could 
do if it got started. Valuable timber needs pro- 
tection most of all, and the value of the forest is 
determined by the kind of trees in it and the den- 
sity of the stand. Fire hazard is usually expressed 
in terms of risk. The Supervisor asks his Ranger if 
the risk on a certain area in his district is high, low, 
or medium. Risk depends, of course, largely upon 
the character and inflammability of the forest cover 
and the presence of human causes. Dense forests 
involve greater risk than open, scattering trees; 
government forests interspersed with private hold- 
ings containing much old slash have a high risk 
factor ; and government forests near sawmills, large 
towns, and along railroad rights-of-way also have 
high risk factors. All these matters must be consid- 



136 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

ered, in order that each area on each Ranger district 
gets just enough money for fire protection and not 
a bit more. 

Forest Fire History. Very important also in fire 
protection are the studies which the Forest Serv- 
ice is carrying on, dealing with forest fire history. 
For many years back, records have been kept on all 
fires : their causes, area burned over, date of the fire, 
damage caused, the exact location of each fire, the 
cost of fighting it, the total number each month and 
each calendar year, and many other data. More 
recently records have been kept upon still further 
details connected with each fire, such as: the time 
elapsed between the start and the discovery of a fire, 
between the discovery and the report to the proper 
official, between the report and the beginning of the 
actual work of fighting, and the time required to 
put the fire out. Intensive studies have been made 
also upon the length and character of the fire season 
on each Forest, for it is important to know the 
maximum length, the minimum length and the 
average length of the fire season. These data show 
how much extra help must be hired for fire patrol 
and fire fighting, and during what periods the 
greatest damage is done, based both on acreage 





Figure 39. Putting out a ground fire. Even if the Are docs not 
burn tin- standing timber, it kills the young trees and so weakens the 
larger ones that they are easily blown over. Wallowa National For- 
est, Oregon. 

Figure 40. Forest officers ready to leave a tool box for a forest 
fire in the vicinity. Such tool boxes as these are stationed at conveni- 
ent places on National Forests ready for any emergency. Arapaho 
National Forest, Colorado. 



PROTECTION 137 

burned over and by the number of fires. Studies 
of this kind yield positive information on what areas 
of each Forest are particularly liable to lightning 
fires, to camp fires, and to incendiary fires. With 
this knowledge the Forest Supervisor can plan and 
distribute his men and funds more intelligently; 
they tell him during what period he can expect the 
most trouble, and therefore must have the greatest 
number of fire fighters at his command. It is 
scientific study like this that is doing more than 
anything else to solve the fire protection problem 
in the Western States. 

Relation of Forest Fires to the Weather. In 
cooperation with the United States Weather 
Bureau, the Forest Service studies weather condi- 
tions in relation to forest fires. Weather forecasts 
have been sent to each Forest Supervisor through- 
out the fire season, informing him of the probable 
weather conditions. The velocity and duration of 
the wind, the temperature, the precipitation, and 
the relative humidity are all factors which greatly 
affect the inflammability of the forest. Forest Su- 
pervisors have been informed in these forecasts of 
what are known as emergency conditions, that is, 
an unsual and abnormal combination of weather 



138 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

conditions which make fire danger very great. 
These conditions may be a high wind, low relative 
humidity, high temperatures, or a combination of 
the three. When a Forest Supervisor is informed 
by the District Forester that emergency conditions 
are likely to exist during the next ten days or so, he 
immediately sends an alarm to all his Rangers to be 
especially watchful. 

Improvements and Equipment for Protection. 
After the preliminaries of fire protection finance, 
forest fire history, and the study of weather and 
emergency conditions have been worked out, prob- 
ably the first and most important prerequisite to 
forest fire protection is a matter already spoken of, 
namely, the improvements and the equipment. 
The construction and maintenance of improvements 
and the possession of suitable equipment is second 
in importance only to the organization which is to 
do the actual fire suppression. Roads, trails, tele- 
phone lines, fire lines, lookout stations, Ranger sta- 
tions, tool and food caches, a central supply depot, 
and many other things are necessary before men 
can be effective. Each Forest Ranger has use for 
the following equipment: fire fighting tools, water 
bags and pails, teams, pack horses, wagons, auto- 



PROTECTION 139 

mobiles, saddle horses, tents, portable telephone 
lines, riding and packing equipment, and many 
other special equipment, which must be hired when 
occasion for its use arises. If a Forest Ranger 
has not access to this equipment, and few of them 
have, he has hanging by his telephone a complete list 
of all the stores, stables, garages, etc., in the neigh- 
boring towns and how much equipment each can 
furnish when called upon. 

Forest Fire Maps and Charts. Not the least 
important bit of equipment, by any means, is the 
fire map or maps. The Forest Supervisor has a 
fire map of his whole forest in his office and the 
Forest Ranger has one of his district (sometimes 
including the neighboring districts, too) hanging 
in his cabin, usually posted conspicuously, so that 
it can be referred to any time of the day or night 
without delay. These maps have upon them all 
the available information regarding the country 
which is to be protected. They show physiographic 
features, such as topography, creeks, springs, 
meadows, water, swamps, etc.; vegetative features, 
such as timber, forage, brush, reproduction, planted 
areas, regenerating areas, slashings, etc. ; such man- 
made features as roads, trails, cabins, ranger sta- 



140 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

tions, corrals, pastures, Supervisor's headquarters, 
sheep camps, cattle camps, ranches, camp sites, rail- 
roads, logging railroads and camps, sawmills, 
power plants, towns, villages, etc. ; and special pro- 
tective features, such as locations of men, tools, 
equipment, tool and food caches, local help, emer- 
gency help, fire lines, fire breaks, lookouts, govern- 
ment and private telephone lines, instruments and 
switchboards, locations of stores, state Fire War- 
dens, livery stables, pack trains, garages, stage 
routes, etc. All these features and data are not put 
upon one map ; usually a series of maps are used or 
some of the information is put on charts or on the 
border of the maps. In short all this information is 
put in such form that it is available at the shortest 
notice for emergency conditions. It makes little 
difference how it is recorded, so long as the informa- 
tion is available when needed. 

Forest Fire Organization. The forest fire or- 
ganization, whether it be on the whole National 
Forest or upon the Ranger district, consists of three 
agencies : the fire detection agencies, the fire report- 
ing agencies, and the fire fighting agencies. All 
these must work in absolute harmony without inter- 
ruption of any kind, to obtain the maximum of 



PROTECTION 141 

efficiency. The detection agencies consist of the 
lookout men, stationed at high, advantageous 
points which overlook large areas, and the moving 
patrolmen, who are assigned to definite beats or ter- 
ritory which cannot be adequately reached by the 
lookouts. Lookout men live in small cabins on the 
tops of high mountains, and they watch for fires 
constantly. In regions which have very few high 
points and which are not suited to that method 
of detection, moving patrolmen are employed. 
These men move about on foot, on horseback, on 
railroad speeders, in automobiles, or in any other 
conveyance adapted to the country they are in. 

When the detectors find a fire they report it im- 
mediately to the nearest Forest Ranger or the For- 
est Supervisor. The Forest Ranger in whose dis- 
trict the fire is located is logically the first man to be 
informed, but telephone connections and other con- 
ditions sometimes alter this procedure. Just be- 
cause a fire is found in, we will say, Ranger district 
number one, does not necessarily mean that the 
Forest Ranger of this district is the proper man 
to be notified. The fire may be at the very outer 
boundary of his district and may be much more 
easily accessible to the Forest Ranger in district 



142 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

number two. In any case it is all arranged before- 
hand just exactly who shall be notified in case of a 
fire in each and every corner of a National Forest. 
Each man in the organization has his duties and re- 
sponsibilities determined for him in advance and he 
does his part without being prodded or reminded. 
The location of a fire in the wild and inaccessible 
forest regions of the West, which may seem a very 
simple matter, is determined in a very ingenious 
manner. 

How Fires Are Located. The lookout man, as 
well as the Forest Rangers and the Forest Super- 
visor, is provided with identical maps of the For- 
est. These maps show most of the important fea- 
tures useful in fire protection work, including also 
the private lands, all government holdings, and the 
public land survey. This public land survey has 
divided the land surface into legal subdivisions 
known as townships, sections, and quarter sections, 
and it is by these and with reference to these that 
all features, both natural and artificial, are located. 
A township is usually a square 6 miles on a side, 
containing 36 sections. Each section is divided into 
quarter sections containing 160 acres each, which 
are further divided (though not by law) into forty- 



PROTECTION 143 

acre squares. The problem, therefore, that con- 
fronts the lookout man upon the discovery of a 
forest fire is to inform the Ranger or other Forest 
officer where the fire is — that is, in what section it is 
located, if it cannot be located with reference to 
some well-known natural feature. 

In order to determine in what section or quarter 
section a fire is located, each lookout point on the 
Supervisor's and Rangers' fire maps has a trans- 
parent circular protractor mounted on it. (A pro- 
tractor is a device by which angles are marked off; 
it consists of a circle upon whose arc the degrees 
from to 360 are indicated, degrees being equiv- 
alent to North, 90° to East, 180° to South and 270° 
to West.) The center of the protractor is the 
lookout point. A piece of black thread is fastened 
to the center of each lookout point, so that it can be 
stretched across the arc of the circle and the de- 
grees read off. The other end of the thread has 
fastened to it a thumb tack or similar device, so that 
when the thread is stretched to read a certain angle, 
it can be fixed at that angle. The maps of the 
lookout men are usually fastened or permanently 
mounted upon a table which is oriented (that is, the 
top of the map is turned toward the north). The 



144 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

lookout men have sighting devices, usually ali- 
dades, which are placed on the map, by means of 
which they sight at a fire; but the bearing of the 
fire is read from the angles marked on the edge of 
the map, which is in reality a large protractor. 

By these devices a fire is quickly and accurately 
located. When the lookout man sees a fire, he gets 
its bearing from the map by means of the sighting 
device. He telephones this bearing to the Ranger, 
or, in many cases, to the Supervisor. Imme- 
diately the Supervisor goes to his map, picks up 
the black thread attached to this lookout point, 
stretches the string, and, having marked off the 
bearing, pushes the thumb tack into the map. In 
the meantime, another lookout, perhaps two more, 
have sighted the same fire. The black threads from 
the other lookout points on the Supervisor's map 
are stretched and fixed in a similar manner. The 
fire will be found to be at the point where two or 
more of these black threads intersect. This is only 
one of the many ways which have been devised to 
locate forest fires; there are other methods, but all 
are based upon the same principle. 

The Fire Fighting Organization. The organ- 
ization of men who do the actual fire suppression 







Figure ±2. A forest fire running in dense underbrush on one of 
the National Forests in Oregon. 

Figure 43. Men in a dense forest with heavy undergrowth clearing 
away brush to stop the fire as it is running down hill. Crater Na- 
tional Forest, Oregon. 



PROTECTION 145 

must be an elastic one, adequate to meet the needs 
of a Ranger district or of a whole National Forest, 
or, in some cases, of an entire administrative dis- 
trict, comprising as many as 25 to 30 National 
Forests. The Forest Guards and Forest Rangers 
are known as the first line of defense in this war 
against forest fires. Upon them falls the brunt of 
the work of fire suppression. The second line is 
composed of local stockmen, ranchers, and logging 
and sawmill crews. When these prove insufficient 
in number, the large villages and towns are called 
upon, and the last resort is the labor of the cities 
and the United States Army. Thus, in the case of 
a very large fire the organization of the Forest 
Service is modified to cover not only each and every 
National Forest, but also entire States. In case of 
a very large fire, every available man from each 
Forest is sent to take his place in the organization. 
Expert fire fighters are sent direct to the fire. 
Other Forest officers are sent to the large towns and 
villages to act as quartermasters. These men hire 
fire fighters, entrain them, and fill orders for food, 
bedding, tools, and other equipment. Other quar- 
termasters at the scene of the fire check shipments 
of supplies, check the time of fire fighters, approve 



146 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

accounts, hire transportation, and perform similar 
duties. Special disbursing agents are sent to the 
scene to pay the men. In short, everything is done 
to dispatch as quickly as possible the necessary men, 
food and equipment to the fire, and to do it in 
accordance with the prearranged plan for such 
emergencies. 

Forest Fire Cooperation. A very important 
part of the plan of fire protection on the National 
Forests are the cooperative agreements entered into 
between the Forest Service and private individuals 
or companies. Such cooperation may be in the 
form of building improvements for fire suppression, 
furnishing men in case of fire, furnishing lookouts 
or patrols, furnishing equipment, and, in fact, in 
connection with any of the necessary means for 
fighting fire. This cooperation has been of mu- 
tual benefit. One National Forest may cooperate 
with one or more neighboring Forests or with 
sawmills, power plants, logging camps, or railroad 
companies. Cooperation may also be with a well- 
organized Forest Protection Association, of which 
there are a large number in the Western States. 
These cooperative agencies agree to send a large 
force of their men to fires on the National Forest 



PROTECTION 147 

in their vicinity, and the Forest Service reciprocates 
by sending men for fires occurring on their lands, 
which may threaten National Forest timber. 
Often cooperative agencies enter into agreement 
to build jointly with the Forest Service certain 
improvements, such as telephone lines, lookout 
towers, or trails, which will benefit public fire pro- 
tection as well as private. Many sawmills and log- 
ging companies who operate on or near the Na- 
tional Forests have agreements with the Service, 
by which they suspend all operations and send all 
their help to fires which threaten National Forest 
timber. All timber sale contracts of the Forest 
Service provide for cooperative fire protection. 

Fighting Forest Fires. The most important re- 
quirements for successful fire suppression are: 
quick arrival after discovery, adequate forces of 
men, proper equipment, thorough organization on 
the fire line, skill in attacking, and careful, sys- 
tematic patrol after the fire is thought to be out. 
All fires, whether large or small, require generals 
to lead the attacking forces, and the strategy of 
fire fighting can only be learned after long expe- 
rience on the fire line. A cool, level-headed man is 
the greatest necessity in an emergency, for it is as 



148 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

disastrous to get too many men as it is too few. A 
few men that know how to attack a fire are worth 
a great deal more than a great many that are in- 
experienced. 

There are different kinds of fires, depending 
upon their size, their intensity, and the nature of the 
country in which they are burning. And there are 
as many different methods of fighting fire as there 
are kinds of fires. Some fires, such as grass fires or 
those burning in the needles and litter in the forest, 
can be extinguished directly by being smothered or 
beaten out. For this purpose Rangers sometimes 
use their saddle blankets, when nothing else is 
handy, but usually wet gunny sacks, boughs, and 
tree branches are used. Often, if it is available, 
sand or dirt is thrown on the fire with a shovel. 
Surface fires are a little more difficult to extinguish. 
They are more intense and more swift and consume 
brush, young growth, and fallen dry trees. These 
usually cannot be attacked directly, but must be 
controlled indirectly by the building of a trench 
or a fire break, or by a system of back firing. 
Trenches are fire breaks in miniature, usually from 
one to several feet wide. Fire breaks or fire lines 
are broad belts from 30 to 50 feet wide, which are 





Figure 44. Fire in a Lodgepole pine forest in Colorado. Arapaho 
National Forest, Colorado 



Figure 45. A mountain fire in "Chaparral," five hours after it started. 
Pasadena, California 



PROTECTION 149 

cleared of inflammable material, not so much to stop 
the fire when it reaches this belt as to furnish a 
safe area from which fire can be fought and, most 
of all, from which back firing can be started. These 
lines or belts are usually built along ridges. If a 
fire starts on the lower slope of a mountain and the 
wind carries it up the mountain toward the fire line, 
the only hope of stopping the fire at the top of the 
ridge at the fire line is to start fires on the top of 
the ridge, which will burn down the slope and meet 
the original fire coming up. In rare cases, as, for 
instance, in the Idaho fires of 1910, the fires get to 
be so large and swift that all methods of attack 
prove futile and the only salvation is in natural 
barriers, such as rivers, or a change of the wind, or 
rain, to extinguish them. 

In all fire fighting work, the plan is to surround 
the fire (if it cannot be beaten or smothered out) by 
a trench, fire line, or fire break, and to prevent the 
fire from spreadng. In this kind of work, shovels, 
spades, mattocks, rakes, and hoes are used to move 
the soil; saws and axes are used to remove fallen 
trees from the fire line, and in some cases plows, 
dynamite, and other implements are employed. 



150 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

PROTECTION AGAINST TRESPASS, FOREST INSECTS, 
EROSION, AND OTHER AGENCIES 

While the protection of the Forest resources from 
fire is probably the most important phase of forest 
protection, it is not the only one by any means. 
The National Forest force also protects the Forest 
resources from trespass, from insect damages, and 
from tree diseases. Also water supply for domestic 
use, for irrigation, waterpower, and navigation 
must be protected, and the public health must be 
safeguarded against the pollution of the streams 
emerging from the Forests. It is also the duty of 
Forest officers, in cooperation with the state au- 
thorities, to protect game, fish, and birds from il- 
legal practices. 

Trespass. The Act of June 4, 1897, authorizes 
the Secretary of Agriculture to make rules and 
regulations for the occupancy, use and protection of 
the National Forests, and provides that any viola- 
tion of such rules and regulations shall be punish- 
able by a fine or imprisonment or both. This and 
later acts provide for fines or imprisonment for all 
violations of the regulations governing National 
Forests. The violation of these regulations consti- 



PROTECTION 151 

tutes trespass, and these may be either fire, timber, 
grazing, occupancy or property trespass, depending 
upon the offense. Since the United States has all 
the civil rights and remedies for trespass possessed 
by private individuals, it may bring action to re- 
cover damages resulting from trespass or breach 
of contract. 

Fire trespass includes the following offenses : set- 
ting fire to timber, brush or grass; building camp 
fires in dangerous places where they are hard to 
extinguish; or leaving camp fires without com- 
pletely extinguishing them. The various railroads 
that cross the National Forests are one of the 
most frequent offenders in that the sparks issuing 
from the locomotives or the hot ashes dropping from 
the fire box set fire to National Forest timber. The 
railroads are required to use every precaution to 
prevent such fires, but many of them are started, re- 
sulting in damage suits by the Government. The 
damages cover not only the merchantable timber 
and forage destroyed, but damages are also col- 
lected for young, immature growth, which at first 
thought might seem to have little 01 no value. But 
the courts have held that while the young, unmer- 
chantable trees have very little value now, they 



152 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

have a great value as the basis for a future crop of 
timber. Thus, in the case of the United States 
versus the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Rail- 
road, in 1910, for fire trespass on the Black Hills 
National Forest, caused by sparks from the loco- 
motives operated by the company, the damages in- 
cluded $17,900 for young growth. Also, in the 
case of the United States versus the Great North- 
ern Railroad, in 1911, in which suit was brought 
upon the negligence (causing fires to start) of the 
defendant company on their right-of-way, which 
fires subsequently spread to the Blackfeet National 
Forest, damages included the destruction of a great 
many immature trees, the value of which was esti- 
mated on the basis of their value at maturity dis- 
counted to date. It is significant that this case 
never went to trial; the defendant paid damages 
and costs without argument. 

Under timber trespass are included the follow- 
ing acts : the cutting, killing, girdling, or otherwise 
damaging trees; the cutting of timber under sale 
contract or permit before it is marked by a Forest 
officer; the removal of timber before it is scaled, 
measured, or counted by a Forest officer; and the 
fraudulent stamping of any timber belonging to the 



PROTECTION 153 

United States with the regulation marking tools or 
similar device. Under grazing trespass are in- 
cluded such acts as : grazing stock on National For- 
est lands without permit; grazing stock on areas 
which are designated as closed to grazing; driving 
stock across a National Forest without permit ; and 
refusal to remove stock upon instructions from an 
authorized Forest officer when an injury is being 
done to the National Forests by reason of the im- 
proper handling of the stock. The use of National 
Forest land without a permit for any purpose for 
which special use permits are required constitutes 
occupancy trespass. But traveling, temporary 
camping, bunting, surveying, or prospecting may 
be carried on without permit, and camp wood and 
forage for stock used in connection with such ac- 
tivities may be taken free of charge. The unau- 
thorized appropriation, damage, or destruction of 
property belonging to the United States, which is 
used in the administration of the National Forests, 
also constitutes trespass. 

Innocent trespass is usually settled amicably be- 
tween the trespasser and the Supervisor. If the 
violation of the timber, grazing, or land regulations 
was due to a misunderstanding and was not of a 



154 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

willful character, a permit is issued and the tres- 
passer pays for the timber or special use, as under 
regulation. Fire and property trespass cases sel- 
dom can be construed as innocent, hence in most 
cases such offenses result in litigation. 

Forest Insects. Protection against forest in- 
sects is carried out in cooperation with the Bureau 
of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture. 

An essential part of good forest protection is the 
work of locating and reporting evidences of insect 
depredations. There are scores of insects which 
are constantly working in the forests, either injur- 
ing or killing live trees or attacking the wood of 
trees after they have been killed. Weevils kill 
young shoots on trees and destroy tree seeds ; bark 
beetles and timber beetles infest the bark, girdle the 
tree and destroy the wood; and various borers and 
timber worms attack seasoned and unseasoned for- 
est products and destroy the wood in the forest after 
it has been cut down and sawed into lumber. The 
greatest annual loss by insects is caused not so 
much by conspicuous local outbreaks as in the sus- 
tained annual loss of scattered merchantable trees. 
Local infestations often kill a large percentage of 
trees on an area, but these outbreaks are easily seen ; 



PROTECTION 155 

the scattered infestations that kill a tree or two here 
and there over large forest areas are not so notice- 
able, but, taken all together, add up to a startling 
total. 

The task of locating and reporting insect infesta- 
tions falls upon the Forest Ranger and other field 
men of the Forest Service. Since the Rangers are 
practically the only class of Forest officers that 
visit all parts of a National Forest during each 
field season, the Supervisor relies mostly on them to 
report upon insect infestations. In riding to and 
from his work, while on fire patrol, while going for 
mail and supplies, while attending to the timber, 
grazing and other business of his district, the Ran- 
ger does a good deal of traveling and covers practi- 
cally every part of his district. These are good op- 
portunities to watch for fresh outbreaks of insects, 
and the wide-awake, progressive Ranger never 
misses such chances. If he sees reddish-brown 
masses of pitch and sawdust on the bark of a tree he 
immediately recognizes it as the work of insects. Or 
perhaps he may see a pine or a spruce tree with all 
its needles turned yellow. He knows then that this 
tree was girdled by bark beetles very recently, prob- 
ably during the previous summer. A tree whose 



156 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

needles had turned red would indicate to him that 
the infestation was more than a year old, since 
trees attacked in the spring of one year usually do 
not show the results until the following summer. 
These two stages are known by the trained ento- 
mologist as the "yellow-top" and the "red-top" 
stages respectively. The latter is followed by the 
"black-top" stage. In this stage, insect infested 
trees stand out very conspicuously as leafless, gray 
or black snags, and they tell the story of the work 
of bark beetles that happened years ago. 

Probably the first external evidence of the attack 
of a bark beetle upon living trees with normal green 
foliage, is the presence of pitch tubes upon the 
outer bark. These are small, reddish-brown (later 
becoming grayish-white) masses of pitch and saw- 
dust, which exude from the small cylindrical en- 
trance made by the adult beetle where it bores 
through the bark to begin its egg tunnel. Each 
tube represents the entrance of one or more of these 
beetles. But we must follow these egg tunnels fur- 
ther, to learn how the actual damage is done to the 
tree. As soon as the bark beetle has made its 
entrance through the bark, it starts to work up 
through the live bark and cambium of the tree, 



5J 


,C o 


si c 


j^fe 






tr. a 


73 73 


Et 


« S 




g « cu 



.- 




C. *~ 








«J 




<L> 


z 


fc£ c 


c/: 








OJ 


4- 




c " 




U3 




c 


>4 


41 


l— ' E 


o 




Fh 
i; 


c 


& 


- 


*J2 


"3 3 






pC ^ 


















r™ i> 


t-' 


~ 


4< "^ 




•* 


Jjj 


5 j^ 


£~ 


4) 


« 


C — 


>> 








c ~ 


fcfi 


CC 


w y 


ej o 






4J .g 




E 


+J 


■Ji o 


20 


3 CJ 


•-5 CU 



PROTECTION 157 

forming a tunnel but little larger than the diameter 
of the beetle, which is known as the egg gallery, 
These egg galleries vary in shape from straight to 
winding, and in length from ten to forty inches. 
As a rule, male and female beetles work together in 
one gallery, and the eggs are deposited along the 
sides of the gallery, often in little pockets. When 
the tunneling and egg-laying process of the adult 
beetles is completed, their activity ceases, and they 
are usually found dead at the upper end of their 
galleries. The larva? hatch and begin their work 
by burrowing across the cambium at right angles to 
the egg galleries. The complete girdling of the 
cambium layer is not accomplished until the larvae 
have completed their work, and the numerous larval 
galleries, by joining one another, form a complete 
gallery around the cambium of the tree, thus cut- 
ting off the food supply which is made in the leaves 
of the tree, from the lower portion of the tree, 
namely the roots. Since the roots cannot live with- 
out nourishment, the tree dies. As soon as the 
larvae have completed their development they pu- 
pate. Later they develop into adult beetles. 
These adult beetles issue forth in swarms the fol- 
lowing spring, to attack new trees. 



158 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

The control of insect pests is a difficult matter. 
On areas where insect depredations are conspicuous 
and are liable to spread to nearby valuable timber, 
control measures are undertaken in cooperation 
with experts from the Bureau of Entomology. In 
these control projects, crews of men fell the infested 
trees, strip the bark from them, and burn the bark 
(usually at a time of the year when the young 
broods of beetles are still in the bark, namely, fall 
or winter) . Trap trees are sometimes resorted to. 
In this method, trees are girdled with an ax and 
thereby weakened to such a degree that beetles are 
attracted to it. After such a tree has become thor- 
oughly infested in this manner, it is cut down and 
burned. In the case of a large, conspicuous infes- 
tation, an insect reconnoissance is made, in order to 
obtain an estimate of the percentage of trees that 
have been killed by insects. When it is possible, 
the timber is immediately sold. For example, on 
the Lassen National Forest, the writer several years 
ago made such an estimate of an infestation caused 
by the mountain pine beetle, covering over 100,000 
acres. The reconnoissance showed that about 35 
per cent, of the trees above 12 inches in diameter 
had been killed. The killed timber was subse- 



PROTECTION 159 

quently utilized for telephone and telegraph poles. 

There are many administrative measures which 
are practiced on the National Forests, which aim to 
prevent insect infestation. The prevention and 
suppression of forest fires, which form infection 
courts for insects, is probably the most important 
one. In all timber sales, old dead snags and slash- 
ing, which are breeding places for insects, are dis- 
posed of. Through free use and timber sales, in- 
sect-killed timber is disposed of and the loss due 
to insects is reduced to a minimum, besides in many 
cases destroying the young insect broods. 

Tree Diseases. In almost every administrative 
district there is a Consulting Pathologist, connected 
with the Bureau of Plant Pathology of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, who has charge of all work 
dealing with the eradication of tree diseases. 

A tree disease is really any condition that inter- 
feres with the normal functioning of the tree, be this 
condition caused by fungi, mistletoe, fumes, smoke, 
frost, sunscald, drought or excess of water in the 
soil. Parasitic fungi and mistletoes cause most of 
the tree diseases. Leaf diseases, by killing a 
greater part of the foliage, destroy the very organs 
in which food for the growing tissues is prepared. 



160 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

Diseases of the bark intercept the flow of food com- 
ing down in the bark from the leaves. Diseases of 
the sapwood cut off the water supply, which is 
pumped upward from the roots. Those that attack 
the roots also affect the water supply of the tree. 
Diseases of flowers and seeds destroy the faculty 
of reproduction. 

Certain parasites are able to enter the youngest 
parts of trees, twigs and leaves directly, but the 
majority of the fungi causing decay of the wood 
can get into the interior of the living tree only by 
way of a pin knot or wound. For this reason, 
every wound caused by lightning, by fire, by man, 
or by animals, constitutes a menace to infection. 
Many coniferous trees cover their wounds by an 
aseptic coat of pitch, which is very effective in 
preventing the germination and growth of fungus 
spores. But the less resinous conifers and the 
hardwood trees do not cover their wounds very ef- 
fectively; large wounds are not covered at all. 
Upon exposure by a wound, the sapwood just un- 
derneath the bark dies, dries out, and checks. 
Spores of parasitic fungi enter the cracks, ger- 
minate and infect the heartwood. The spores of a 
heartwood-inhabiting fungus cannot germinate and 



PROTECTION 161 

thrive unless they fall upon the heartwood of the 
tree. In this way certain diseases of the heartwood, 
which result in rot or decay, can very frequently 
be traced directly to fire scars, lightning scars, spike 
tops, broken limbs or branches, and other mechan- 
ical destruction caused by lightning, fire, storms, 
cloudbursts, or heavy snow-fall. 

Fire as a cause of wounds is responsible for 
more cases of heartrot than all other injuries taken 
together. For this reason the protection of forests 
from fire is the most important preventive measure 
that can be taken to eradicate tree diseases. In 
fact, the best way of controlling diseases is by pre- 
venting them, and the Forest officers are endeavor- 
ing to eliminate any danger to the health of the 
forest, to prevent the injury of the trees, and to 
establish healthy conditions for their growth. This 
is forest hygiene, and it bears the same relation to 
the trees and forests as personal hygiene and com- 
munity sanitation do to persons and communities. 

It is impossible to grow a sound and thrifty forest 
for future generations if there are unhealthful con- 
ditions in the forest that are a constant menace to 
the trees. The first step in this hygienic work is 
close observation on the part of the Forest officers. 



162 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

The next important step is to prevent the infection 
and infestation of sound trees by getting rid of all 
diseased and insect-infested living and dying trees. 
By means of timber sales and free use, Forest offi- 
cers very materially help in establishing healthy con- 
ditions on the National Forests. There is a clause 
in most timber sale contracts which requires the cut- 
ting by the purchaser of all snags and other un- 
healthy trees on the area. This measure not only 
eliminates undesirable trees from a hygienic stand- 
point, but it also makes it possible to utilize the 
merchantable timber left in undesirable trees, which 
would otherwise go to waste. On timber sales, For- 
est officers who do the marking leave for reproduc- 
tion only such trees as are perfectly sound and 
healthy. Mistletoe infested trees, especially, are 
marked for cutting, for neither in plant nor in ani- 
mal life can healthy offspring be expected to de- 
velop under unhealthful conditions. 

Water Supply. Undoubtedly the greatest value 
of the mountain forests of the West, most of which 
are within the National Forests, lies in their influ- 
ence upon the regularity of the water supply. In 
many States these mountains afford the only water 
supply for domestic use, for irrigation, and for the 



PROTECTION 163 

development of power. The future development 
of the entire region depends, therefore, upon a reg- 
ular water supply. It is not so much the amount 
of water as the manner in which it flows from the 
mountains that is important. To insure this regu- 
larity, the vegetative covering is an important fac- 
tor. For this reason, Congress made the preserva- 
tion of conditions favorable to stream flow one of 
the principal objects in the establishment and ad- 
ministration of the National Forests. 

Many of my readers who have lived out-of-doors 
a great deal have learned by common observation 
the simple problem of how the forest regulates 
stream flow. Any one who has been in a treeless 
region after a heavy rainstorm can recall how sud- 
denly the streams swell and flood their banks, and 
how soon these same streams return to their former 
flow. On the other hand, a severe rainstorm in a 
forested region will hardly have an appreciable 
effect upon the streams. The difference is not very 
hard to explain. In a treeless region there are no 
natural obstacles which might delay or prevent the 
raindrops from reaching the ground. The soil is 
usually hard and dry, and the water runs off as 
though from a gable roof. In a forest, we well 



164 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

know, the crowns of the trees intercept most of the 
rain that falls; very little strikes the ground di- 
rectly. The rain that strikes the crown is dissi- 
pated on the leaves or needles, on the twigs and 
branches, and on the trunk. It must travel a long 
way before it reaches the ground, and all this delay 
helps in preventing a rapid run-off or flood. The 
soil in the forest is covered by a living ground cover 
of flowers, shrubs and young trees, and by a dead 
cover composed of leaves, twigs, dead branches, 
fallen trees, all of which interrupt the raindrop's 
journey to the ground. Even after the rain 
reaches the ground, only a small part of it goes off 
as surface run-off. The soil in the forest is loose 
and full of holes and channels made by decaying 
roots, earth worms, etc., so that the water is ab- 
sorbed as fast as it reaches the soil. Also the soil 
in the forest contains a large amount of organic 
matter, resulting from decaying leaves and 
branches, and this organic matter acts as a great 
sponge, because it is capable of holding several 
times its own weight of water. As a result of the 
living and dead ground cover, the crown cover, and 
the organic matter in the soil, the rainfall is fed to 
the streams gradually through weeks and months, 



PROTECTION 165 

instead of a few hours, and the nearby rivers have 
a steady, equable flow, instead of alternate stages 
of floods and low water. 

Closely bound up with the protection of water- 
sheds is the erosion problem. Without a forest 
cover, rain runs off mountain slopes very rapidly, 
often carrying with it silt and sand, and, in severe 
floods, even rocks and bowlders. A well known 
physical law states that the carrying capacity of 
a stream increases as the sixth power of its velocity. 
In other words, double the velocity of a stream and 
you have multiplied its carrying power by 64; in- 
crease its velocity ten times, and you multiply its 
carrying power by a million. The delay caused by 
the forest cover in each raindrop's journey down a 
mountain side not only prevents floods, but also 
preserves the fertility of the fields in the valleys 
below. 

Many streams in the West carry such enormous 
amounts of silt that the storage capacity of reser- 
voirs has been seriously impaired, even within a 
comparatively short time. Then, also, there is the 
added difficulty and expense of keeping the diver- 
sion works — the ditches and canals — free from an 
excess of this material. Studies which have been 



166 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

carried on to determine in what way the adminis- 
tration of the National Forests can keep the de- 
structive processes of erosion at a minimum have 
shown that the balance between the stability of the 
soil and rapid erosion on many slopes is so delicate 
that only a slight abuse may result in complete loss 
of the fertile top soil and permanent changes in the 
character of the vegetation. 

In August, 1909, the town of Ephraim, on the 
Manti National Forest, Utah, experienced a disas- 
trous flood from Ephraim canyon, which was at- 
tributed in part to the overgrazed condition on the 
watershed. An examination made the next spring 
clearly demonstrated that the severity of the flood 
was a direct result of deterioration of forest, brush, 
and grass cover, due to overgrazing during a long 
period of years. The canyon was therefore closed 
to grazing as an immediate protective measure. 
Plans were thereafter made to restore the forest 
cover of the canyon by planting. 

In this kind of protection work, as in the case of 
forest fires, it has been found that preventive meas- 
ures are much more effective and much less costly 
than remedial measures. The regulations under 




§5 



>.2 






"f- ?• ¥ 



»; : 5 
A * y- 






ii C — 
— <x: *^ 
^ ^ so 



PROTECTION 167 

which the Forests are administered give the Secre- 
tary of Agriculture power to institute preventive 
measures. To insure the sufficiency and purity of 
the water supply of a municipality or of an irriga- 
tion district, or to prevent floods and snowslides, the 
use of watersheds for grazing, timber, special uses, 
or settlement is especially restricted when such re- 
striction is found to be necessary. On steep grass 
or timber-covered mountain slopes both grazing and 
timber sales are prohibited, if necessary. 

Public Health. From the relation which the 
National Forests bear to the streams that issue from 
them, it will be seen that they may exert a great 
influence upon the health and general welfare of 
the communities in the valleys below. All persons 
either permanently or temporarily camped upon 
National Forest land are liable to trespass pro- 
ceedings if unsanitary conditions result from their 
presence. All camp refuse must be disposed of 
either by burying or burning. This regulation ap- 
plies to hunting and fishing parties, as well as to 
large logging camps, sawmills, and construction 
camps on National Forest lands. Thus the regula- 
tions strictly guard against the pollution of the 



168 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

water supply of the people who live in the large 
towns and cities, and also those who live on the 
Forests or near them. The watersheds tributary to 
many of the large western cities and towns are 
under special protection by the Forest Service. 
Under this sanitary regulation, it is possible to 
maintain such control of them as will greatly reduce 
the danger of typhoid and other enteric diseases. 

Violation of Game Laws. Wild game, fish and 
birds add materially to the enjoyment of the Na- 
tional Forests by the public, and their protection 
and preservation is a duty of Forest officers. Al- 
though this duty rests primarily with the State 
the Forest Service assists, as far as practicable, in 
the protection of game on the National Forests 
from illegal practices. Forest Service officials are 
at the same time State Game Wardens. In the 
event of a violation of the state game laws, they 
either apprehend the offender or report the matter 
to the proper state official. 

Various kinds of game and bird refuges may be 
included within National Forests, depending upon 
whether they are created by specific acts of the 
State Legislature or by Acts of Congress. In 
these refuges, hunting, trapping, willfully disturb- 



PROTECTION 169 

ing, or killing any game or bird is prohibited. 
Whether the violation occurs in the state game 
refuge or the national refuge, the Forest officer has 
authority to arrest the offender without warrant. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE SALE AND RENTAL OF 
NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 

The timber, the pasture, the water and mineral 
resources and the land in the National Forests 
are for the use of the people, and they may be 
obtained for legitimate use from the local Forest 
officers without delay. In fact, the Forest Service 
is doing all it can to encourage all kinds of business 
which depends upon National Forest resources. 

THE SALE AND DISPOSAL OF NATIONAL FOREST 
TIMBER 

There has been a steady increase in the amount 
and value of the timber cut on the National Forests. 
During the fiscal year 1917 over 700,000,000 feet 
of timber, valued at almost $1,500,000, was cut, 
while almost three times as much was sold. Most 
of this was cut in the States of Montana, Oregon, 
Idaho, Washington, California and Arizona. 

All mature timber on the National Forests which 

170 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 171 

may be cut with benefit and in accordance with cer- 
tain well-established forestry principles, is for sale 
and is advertised and offered as demand arises. 
The outstanding feature of government timber 
sales is the fact that only the stumpage is sold, the 
title of the land remaining with the Government. 
The timber is sold in any quantity, so long as the 
sale is in accordance with well-established policy. 
Large sales require a large initial investment for 
constructing a railroad or other means for taking 
out the timber, and may even require the construc- 
tion of a common carrier from the market to com- 
paratively inaccessible regions. 

Government Timber Sale Policy. The National 
Forest timber sale policy, first of all, aims to pre- 
vent the loss of this valuable public property 
through forest fires. This phase of the policy, how- 
ever, is covered under the chapter on protection. 
Next, it aims to utilize the ripe timber which can 
be marketed and to cut it in such a way as to insure 
the restocking of the land with young timber and 
the continuance of forest production. The price at 
which timber is sold represents, as required by 
statute, the appraised market value and a proper 
return to the public which owns it. It is disposed 



172 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

of in such a way as to prevent its speculative ac- 
quisition and holding, and to prevent monopoly. 

National Forest timber has found its way into 
both the general, far distant market, and the local 
market. But it is the aim of the Forest Service to 
first of all provide for the requirements of local com- 
munities and industries, including the free use and 
sale at cost to settlers as authorized by statute. It 
is also the aim of the Forest Service policy to make 
timberlands of agricultural value available for set- 
tlement under conditions which prevent speculative 
acquisition but encourage permanent and genuine 
farming. According to this policy, land which at 
the present time is covered with a good stand of 
timber and which has been shown to have a greater 
value for agricultural purposes is cleared as soon as 
a bona fide sale can be consummated. And, lastly, 
it is the aim of this policy to return as soon as possi- 
ble the cost of protection and administration of the 
National Forests, and to yield a revenue to the 
States, since these are entitled by statute to 25 per 
cent, of all gross receipts as an offset to the loss of 
local taxes through the government ownership of 
the forests. 

Annual Yield and Cut. Each year the amount 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 173 

of timber which can be cut from each National 
Forest, according to sound forestry principles, is 
authorized by the Secretary of Agriculture. This 
cut is based upon the best available data as to the 
amount of mature and over-mature timber need- 
ing removal, and the amount of annual growth on 
each Forest. At the present time only a small per- 
centage of the authorized annual cut of the Forests 
is taken. Most Forests cut a very small part of 
their annual allotment, but a few Forests cut their 
full annual yield, or nearly so. On some Forests, 
the entire annual yield is used by local industries 
and no timber can be sent to the general market; 
on others a very small part of the annual yield is 
used by local needs and most of the cut can be sent 
to the general market. On the Cascade National 
Forest, in Oregon, for instance, the annual produc- 
tion is estimated at about 200,000,000 feet, while the 
present local needs can be supplied by approx- 
imately 1,000,000 feet. From such a Forest a 
large annual cut can be made for the general mar- 
ket. On the Deerlodge National Forest, in Mon- 
tana, on the other hand, the annual yield is esti- 
mated to be about 40,000,000 feet, all of which is 
needed to supply the large copper mines near Butte. 



174 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

From Forests like this, no sales for the general 
market can be made. 

Although the National Forests contain about six 
hundred billions of board feet of timber, or about 
one-fifth of the standing timber in the United 
States, only a small fraction of the available timber 
is actually disposed of. This is due to the com- 
parative inaccessibility of this timber and the pres- 
ence of large bodies of privately owned timber 
which lie between it and the market. The result 
of this condition is that the bulk of the salable tim- 
ber on the Forests will be automatically saved until 
such a time when most of the privately owned tim- 
ber has been cut. In this way, future generations 
will benefit and the public will receive a much better 
price for it years hence than they could possibly 
obtain now. 

Timber Reconnoissance. Before any timber can 
be sold to advantage, however, it is necessary to take 
an inventory of the timber resources. In other 
words, it is necessary to know where the timber is, 
how much there is, and what can be done with it. 
This timber estimate, or timber reconnoissance, as 
it is called, is also needed to settle questions of title 






NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 175 

arising from the presence of patented lands or valid 
claims; to determine if cutting is advisable on a 
given area, and, if so, under what stipulations ; and 
to fix the minimum price at which stumpage is to 
be sold. The annual yield, or the amount of timber 
grown or produced annually upon an area, must be 
the ultimate basis of the annual cut, and this yield 
can only be computed after an inventory of the 
timber has been made. 

Timber reconnoissance (valuation survey or val- 
uation strips) involves an estimate of the standing 
timber by small legal or natural subdivisions of 
land, with the necessary land surveys, the prep- 
aration of an accurate topographic and forest type 
map, and the compilation of detailed descriptive 
notes. These notes deal with the condition and 
character of the timber, the most practical methods 
of exploitation, the extent and character of the 
young growth, and many other factors which affect 
the management of timber lands. These data are 
secured at a cost of from 3 to 10 cents per acre, de- 
pending upon the accessibility and the topography 
of the region and the density of the timber. This 
work is carried on both in the summer and in the 



176 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

winter. Up to date, about 21,000,000 acres have 
been covered by intensive reconnoissance and about 
48,000,000 acres by extensive methods. 

Logging the Timber. In order that my reader 
may better understand various matters connected 
with the disposal of National Forest timber, it will 
be necessary to give a brief outline of how timber 
and other forest products are taken from the woods, 
and the different steps necessary before a green 
tree in the woods becomes a board or a railroad tie. 

The methods of logging used in the National 
Forests are essentially the same as those used on 
private lands, with the exception of certain details, 
such as the protection of young growth, the cutting 
of snags, and the disposal of the brush. The meth- 
ods used, of course, vary with the locality ; they are 
different for the Pacific Coast, where donkey en- 
gines are used, than for the Rocky Mountains, 
where horses are largely employed. They vary 
with the climate, the topography, the size of the tim- 
ber, and the kind of product to be harvested. But 
a typical logging operation, as carried on in the 
Sierras of California, will give an idea of how logs 
are taken from the forest. 

In the particular operation which I have in mind 




Figure 53. A large storage reservoir used to irrigate the ranches 
an the valley helow. Elevation 10,500 feet. Battlement National 
Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author. 

Figure 54. A sheep herder's camp used temporarily by Forest 
Service timber cruisers. Elevation about 10.000 feet. Battlement 
National Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author. 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 177 

the timber was located on the western slope of the 
mountains between 3,500 and 5,000 feet in elevation. 
The slopes were of medium steepness and much of 
the timber was on level benches. The large saw- 
mill was located at the lower edge of the timber and 
the logging camp was in the woods near the cut- 
ting. The felling of the trees, which were from 
3 to 6 feet in diameter, was done by two men with 
a two-man saw. These men are the "fallers." 
Two men then cut the tree into logs and still other 
men called "swampers " cut the brush and fallen 
trees away so that the newly cut timber can be 
"skidded" to the railroad. This "skidding" is done 
by a powerful, steam-driven stationary donkey- 
engine, which is fitted up with a long cable and a 
drum. After the log is attached to the cable out 
in the woods by means of a "choker," the man in 
the woods gives the signal and the engine starts, 
revolving the drum and winding up the cable at 
the same time pulling the log towards the engine. 
Just beside this engine is a platform from which 
the logs are loaded directly on flat cars. When six 
or eight flat cars are loaded in this manner a loco- 
motive hauls them to the sawmill where they are 
sawed into boards. In this case as soon as the 



178 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

boards were cut they were placed in a flume in 
which there was a strong stream of water. In this 
they floated about 40 miles to a town in the valley 
below directly into the company's lumber yard. 

In the Rocky Mountains one of the main forest 
products derived from the National Forests is rail- 
road ties. On the particular operation with which 
the writer is familiar the Government had sold to 
a tie operator about 3,000,000 railroad ties under 
a long term contract. This tie operator had a 
large contract with a railroad company. The area 
of the sale, several thousand acres, was divided or 
surveyed into long strips each 100 to 150 feet wide 
and from one to one and a half miles long. A large 
camp and commissary was established on the area. 
There were about 100 tie choppers and each man 
was assigned to a strip. On these strips the trees to 
be cut were marked by a Forest officer. Trees too 
small to make ties were left as a basis for a future 
tie operation in from forty to fifty years. 

The tie choppers usually worked alone. They 
first felled the tree with a saw, cut the lower limbs 
off, and marked off the ties on the bark to see how 
many ties could be cut from the tree. The tree 
was then "scored" with an ax on both sides in order 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 179 

to start making the two flat faces of the tie. These 
sides were then chipped with a "broad ax," thus 
making two smooth faces. The bark was then 
peeled from the other two faces and the tree was 
then cut into finished ties. After the ties were 
made the top of the tree was lopped, that is, the 
branches were cut from the trunk. In this opera- 
tion these branches were scattered evenly over the 
ground. The tie chopper then cleared a road 
through the middle of his strip and "parked" his 
ties on the road. He then stamped his private 
mark on each tie. In the winter the ties were 
"hauled" on large sleds to the river bank. Each 
tie chopper's ties were put in a separate pile so 
that the company's scaler could count them and 
credit them to the man that made them. In the 
spring, when the river's banks were full, the ties 
were "driven" down the river to the shipping point, 
usually a town on a railroad line. 

A Forest officer is detailed to an operation of this 
kind to inspect the choppers' work and count and 
stamp the ties. He sees to it that all trees that 
have been marked for cutting are cut, that no trees 
not marked have been cut, that young growth is 
not unnecessarily injured, that the stumps are not 



180 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

left too high, that the tops are fully utilized, that 
the slashing or brush is disposed of according to 
the contract, and that the operator is keeping all 
his agreements in the contract. 

The First Step in Purchasing Government Tim- 
ber. After the desired body of timber has been 
located, the first step for any one desiring to pur- 
chase government timber is to communicate with 
an officer of the National Forest in which the tim- 
ber is located. If only a small amount is desired — 
less than $50 in value — the local Ranger can ar- 
range to make the sale without delay. Amounts 
valued at more than this can be sold only by the 
higher officials of the Service, that is the Super- 
visor, District Forester, or the Forester, according 
to the size of the sale. The Supervisor can sell up 
to two million feet; larger sales are made by the 
District Forester or the Forester. All sales ex- 
ceeding $100 in amount must be advertised, except 
those made to homestead settlers and farmers in a 
private sale. Sales are advertised in order to se- 
cure the largest number of bidders possible and thus 
prevent the monopoly of large bodies of timber by 
large timber operators. 

Procedure in an Advertised Sale. After the ap- 





Figure 55. View taken in the Coast Range mountains of Cali- 
fornia where Sugar pine and Douglas fir are the principal trees. 
Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author. 

Figure 56. A typical mountain scene in the California Coast 
Range. On these steep slopes a forest cover is of vital importance. 
Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the aurnor. 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 181 

plicant has selected the body of timber he wishes to 
purchase, he is furnished by the Supervisor with a 
sample application stating the area, estimated 
amount, minimum stumpage price, period allowed 
for cutting and removing the timber, and other con- 
ditions to be complied with, following as closely as 
possible the form of the final sale agreement. 
Usually, also, the purchaser is interested in the 
amount of timber which he may cut per acre. For 
this reason he visits sample areas on which the trees 
have been marked for cutting. A notice of the sale 
of the timber is then published, the choice of medi- 
ums and number of insertions depending upon 
whether the sale is of local, regional, or general in- 
terest. This notice describes the timber, gives the 
minimum stumpage prices that will be accepted, 
and specifies the date upon which sealed bids will 
be received. The period of advertising is at least 
30 days, and in large sales from 3 to 6 months. 
Forms for bidding are furnished to the original ap- 
plicant and others who signify their intention to 
bid. A deposit is required with all bids to show 
the good faith of the bidder. In large transactions 
this deposit is usually from 3 to 5 per cent, of the 
purchase price. On the date specified in the adver- 



182 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

tisement the Supervisor (or District Forester) 
opens all bids received and awards the sale to the 
highest bidder. The sale contract is then prepared 
and executed by the purchaser. 

A specific statement of financial ability is re- 
quired in all sales of ten million feet or more, and 
in smaller sales in the discretion of the approving 
officer. Such a statement may be required before 
the approval of the sale application, either formal 
or tentative, and in any event before the timber is 
awarded to the successful bidder. The contract 
must be supported by a suitable bond given by two 
responsible sureties or by a surety company au- 
thorized to do business with the United States. 

Timber Sale Contract Clauses. The sale con- 
tract contains in full all the conditions under which 
the cutting is to be done. In all sales of National 
Forest stumpage the contract provides that no tim- 
ber shall be cut until it has been paid for, and that 
it shall not be removed until it has been scaled by a 
Forest officer. All live timber is marked or other- 
wise designated before cutting, and any merchant- 
able timber used for logging improvements, such 
as houses, bridges, stables, etc., must be scaled and 
paid for. In order to secure full utilization of the 




Figure 57. A forest officer at work on a high mountain peak mak- 
ing a plane-table survey and timber estimate of National Forest 
lands. Photo by the author. 

Figure 58. A government timber cruiser's summer camp. These 
cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate of Uncle Sam's timber re- 
sources at a cost of from -2 to 5 cents an acre. Photo bv the author. 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 183 

timber the maximum stump height is ordinarily 
fixed at 18 inches, and merchantable timber must be 
used to a specified diameter in the tops, which is ad- 
justed for each species in accordance with local 
manufacturing and market conditions. The officer 
in charge of the sale is authorized to vary the stump 
height and top diameter in individual cases when 
those specified in the contract are not practicable. 
The tops must be trimmed up and, as a rule, brush 
must be piled and burned, or burned without piling 
under the direction of Forest officers. Merchant- 
able timber which is not cut and removed and 
unmarked trees which are cut must be paid for at 
double the specified stumpage rates. This extra 
charge serves as a penalty. 

All camps,, buildings, railroads, and other im- 
provements necessary in logging and manufactur- 
ing the timber may be constructed upon National 
Forest land without charge. Railroads which open 
up inaccessible regions may be required to be made 
common carriers or to transport logs and lumber 
for other purchasers or for the Government at 
reasonable rates. 

Since fire protection is one of the most important 
duties of the Forest Service, provision is made in 



184 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

all contracts that the purchaser must place himself 
and employees, as well as the employees of his con- 
tractors, at the disposal of authorized Forest offi- 
cers for fighting fires. Reimbursement is made for 
such services at the wages in vogue for fighting 
fires on the National Forest in question, unless the 
fire threatens the timber of the purchaser or prop- 
erty of the operator, or is started in connection with 
the operation. Under these conditions the pur- 
chaser is expected to furnish his available em- 
ployees to assist the Government in fire fighting 
without charge. Efficient spark arresters are re- 
quired on wood and coal burning boilers or locomo- 
tives. Inflammable material must be cleaned up 
in the vicinity of logging engines, and other precau- 
tions taken to insure against fire spreading from 
this source. Snags and diseased trees upon the sale 
area must usually be felled, whether merchantable 
or not, in order to remove fire menace and to check 
the spread of timber infestations and pests. 

Special Contract Clauses. Special clauses are 
inserted in contracts to meet peculiar and unusual 
conditions. These deal with the number of men 
the company is to furnish for brush burning; the 
time of the year this work is to be done; the con- 





Figure 59. Forest officers moving camp while engaged in winter 
reconnaissance work. All food, beds, and clothing are packed on 
"Alaska" sleds and drawn by the men themselves. Photo by the 
author. 

Figure 60. A winter reconnaissance camp showing snow-shoes, 
skis, "Alaska" sleds, and bull hide used to repair the webbing on 
the snow-shoes. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the 
author. 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 185 

struction of fire lines ; the manner of scaling timber ; 
the manner of piling and the location of piles of 
material to be scaled; the definition of a merchant- 
able log; the utilization of tops; the manner or 
method of logging to be used; the location of im- 
provements ; the use of timber for the construction 
of improvements; the disposal of improvements at 
the termination of the contract ; where cutting is to 
begin and how fast it is to proceed ; the percentage 
of merchantable timber to be reserved in marking; 
and other special clauses recommended by the Bu- 
reau of Entomology for the sale of insect infested 
timber. 

That the Forest Service timber sale policy and 
the various timber sale clauses have met with the 
approval of the lumbermen and the timber buyers 
of the Western States is attested by the fact that in 
the last ten years (from July 1, 1907, to June 30, 
1917) there have been nearly 75,000 purchasers of 
National Forest timber and that between these two 
dates the annual number of timber sales has in- 
creased from 5,062 in the fiscal year 1908 to 11,608 
in the fiscal year 1917. No better evidence could 
be cited of the confidence which the lumbermen have 
in the Forest Service method of doing business. 



186 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

When the Operation May Begin. As soon as 
the contract has been executed and the first pay- 
ment has been made a portion of the timber is 
marked for cutting and the purchaser may begin 
operations at once. Sometimes cutting in advance 
of the execution of the contract is allowed to pre- 
vent serious hardship and unnecessary delay and 
expense on the part of the purchaser. 

Marking the Timber for Cutting. In order to 
insure a proper restocking of the ground, all live 
trees must be marked or otherwise designated by a 
Forest officer before cutting can commence. Usu- 
ally from 1/10 to 1/3 of the stand is reserved, either 
scattered over the entire tract or distributed in 
groups. These trees are left for various reasons, 
depending upon circumstances. The most impor- 
tant consideration is, of course, to leave enough 
seed trees to restock the cut-over area. On steep 
slopes a certain number of trees must be left to 
protect the watershed and to prevent the erosion of 
the soil. Many species of trees are subject to 
windthrow when the stand is thinned out. To 
counteract this tendency a sufficient number of 
trees must be left to prevent the wind from getting 
an unobstructed sweep. In many semi-arid por- 




Figure 61. A 



roup of giant redwoods. 
California 



Santa Cruz County, 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 187 

tions of the West additional trees must be left stand- 
ing to protect the forest from excessive drying and 
to prevent the ground from being occupied by use- 
less tree weeds and brush. Often, especially along 
highways, trees are left for their scenic effect. 
From an economic standpoint it is important some- 
times to leave trees in order to make a second cut 
worth while. 

Where only dead timber is purchased, and no 
living trees are cut, or where patches of forest are to 
be cut clean, Forest officers, instead of marking 
every tree to be removed, blaze and mark a bound- 
ary of the cutting area or patch and instruct the 
purchaser accordingly. Where individual trees are 
marked they are blazed and stamped "U. S." next 
to the ground on the lowest side of the stump. 
Additional blazes may be made several feet above 
the ground whenever desired by the purchaser for 
the convenience of his "fallers" or where deep snow 
may conceal the lower mark from the "fallers." 
Where both kinds of blazes are used, one man, in 
fairly dense pine timber, can mark from 500 to 
1,000 trees in a day. Under no condition may un- 
marked or undesignated trees be cut by the pur- 
chaser. 



188 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

The system of marking and the proportion of the 
timber to be cut is explained to purchasers by mark- 
ing sample areas before the contract is executed. 
The cost of logging under the methods of marking 
adopted is compensated fully in the stumpage ap- 
praisal. 

Scaling, Measuring, and Stamping. Unless 
timber is sold by estimate, it must be scaled, 
counted, or measured before it is removed from the 
cutting area or place agreed upon for this purpose. 
In addition it must be stamped by a Forest officer 
with a regulation marking ax or similar instru- 
ment. Payment is made upon the actual scale, 
count or measure, with due allowance for defect. 

All National Forest timber is sold under specifi- 
cations which are in accordance with those in com- 
mercial use, such as logs by the thousand board feet, 
ties by the piece, poles by length and top diameter, 
shingle bolts by the cord, and mining timbers by 
the linear foot. All logs are scaled at the small 
end. 

All saw timber is scaled by the Scribner Decimal 
C log rule. In order to permit scaling at reason- 
able cost to the Forest Service, purchasers may be 
required, where the cost of logging may not be 








S-g- 





«< s S ja 




sJ 1r 3 o 




<U X •= """ 




3 ""- > . 




bt-w .2 




fa o " S 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 189 

unduly increased, to skid and pile the logs for 
scaling. Piles and skidways must be constructed 
so as to permit economical scaling and when neces- 
sary and practicable the purchaser is required to 
mark the small ends of the logs to avoid misunder- 
standing when they are scaled on the pile. 

Logs or other material that has been scaled or 
measured are designated by a "US" stamp im- 
pressed in the wood so that the material may not 
be scaled again by mistake. Each merchantable 
log scaled is stamped on at least one end and un- 
merchantable or defective logs are stamped "US" 
in a circle. Material other than saw logs, such as 
mine timber, ties, posts, poles, or piling, after scal- 
ing, is stamped on at least one end. Cord wood is 
stamped at both the top and bottom of each rick. 

On all National Forests except those in Alaska 
and west of the summit of the Cascades in Wash- 
ington and Oregon, logs over 16 feet are scaled as 
two or more logs as far as practicable in lengths of 
not less than 12 feet. In Alaska and parts of Ore- 
gon and Washington logs up to and including 32 
feet in length are scaled as one log; logs from 
32 to 64 feet inclusive are scaled as two logs as 
nearly equal in length as possible in even feet. All 



190 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

diameters are measured inside the bark at the top 
end of the log and diameters are rounded off to the 
nearest inch above or below the actual diameter. 

In the case of logs each one is numbered and the 
number entered in a scale book with the correspond- 
ing board foot scale of the log. In the case of ties, 
posts, poles, mining timbers, etc., each pile or skid- 
way is numbered and the count or scale entered 
opposite the corresponding number in the scale 
book. 

Disposal of Slash. One of the most important 
features in National Forest timber sales is the dis- 
posal of the brush or slash after logging. On ac- 
count of the great diversity of conditions which 
obtain on the Forests, the best way to dispose of 
brush is not everywhere the same. Piling and 
burning is required where the fire risk is great; 
otherwise the method promising the best silvicul- 
tural results is used. 

When piling and burning is necessary, all tops 
and debris, including large chips made from hewing 
ties, are piled at a safe distance from standing trees. 
The piles are not allowed to be made in groups of 
seedlings or young growth, against dead snags, near 
living trees, or on stumps, large tops or logs, but 




Figure 64. Logging in California. Powerful steam engines pull 
the logs from the woods to the railroad and load them on flat cars. 
Photo by the author. 

Figure 65. The loaded flat cars reach the saw-mill where the logs 
are unloaded and sawn into lumber. During the fiscal year 191? 
timber sales on the National Forests brought into the National Treas- 
ury almost $1,700,000.00. Photo by the author. 






NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 191 

wherever possible in openings. The piles are 
adapted to the size of the opening in which they are 
made and must be made sufficiently compact to 
kindle easily and burn cleanly. The ideal pile is of 
medium size, conical in shape, compact, from 5 to 7 
feet in diameter at the base and from 4 to 5 feet 
high. Brush piling and burning is an art which 
can only be acquired after long experience. 

Brush is scattered whenever this method prom- 
ises the best silvicultural results, unless there is 
serious danger from fire on account of dense timber 
and reproduction. The scattered brush is intended 
to afford protection to seedlings from excessive 
transpiration and from trampling by stock and to 
protect the soil from erosion. 

Ground burning may be advisable where clean 
cutting has been employed, to expose the loose min- 
eral soil for better seed germination. When this 
method is used the purchaser is required to clear a 
fire line around the area to be burned and to furnish 
adequate help to the Forest officer who supervises 
the burning. 

Frequently brush is burned as the cutting pro- 
gresses. Fires are started at convenient points and 
the brush is thrown on them as it is lopped. 



192 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

Where brush burning is necessary it is not ad- 
visable, ordinarily, to burn over an entire sale area. 
It is frequently possible to burn the brush so as to 
form broad fire lines, particularly along railroads 
or wagon roads. The best times for brush burning 
are after a light fall of snow or rain, early in the 
spring before the snow has melted or the dry season 
has begun or during or immediately after summer 
rains. Brush disposal must always keep pace with 
logging except when the depth of snow or other 
reasons make proper disposal impossible. Often 
the brush must lay in piles at least one season before 
it becomes dry enough to burn. 

Payment for Timber. Payment must be made 
for all timber in advance of cutting. This, how- 
ever, does not imply that one advance payment 
must be made to cover the stumpage value of all the 
timber included in the sale. Frequent installments 
are allowed sufficient usually to cover the cut of one 
or two months. 

This arrangement makes it possible to secure 
large tracts of National Forest timber at a very 
slight initial outlay and to hold them with almost 
no interest charges. The other usual carrying 
charges, namely, taxes and fire protection, are elim- 




Figure 66. Scene in Montana. Forest officers constructing a tele- 
phone line through the Flathead National Forest. 

Figure 67. Forest Ranger, accompanied by a lumberman, marking 
National Forest timber for cutting in a timber sale. Coconino Na- 
tional Forest, Arizona. 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 193 

inated. The timber is protected from fire by the 
United States throughout the life of the contract. 
The money deposited to secure cutting in advance 
of the execution of the contract may be credited 
towards the amount to accompany the bid. 

Stumpage Rates. The minimum stumpage rates 
applicable in each proposed sale are determined by 
a careful study of the conditions in the particular 
case. Stumpage rates are the actual market value 
of the timber. They are based upon the quality of 
the timber and the character of its commercial prod- 
ucts ; the estimated cost of logging, transportation, 
and manufacture; the investment required on the 
part of the operator ; the selling value of the prod- 
uct; and a fair profit to the purchaser. The esti- 
mated profit depends upon the size and the per- 
manency of the operation and the degree of risk 
involved. The cost of brush disposal, protection of 
young growth, logging only marked timber and 
other requirements of the Forest Service is fully 
considered in appraising stumpage rates. 

Timber is ordinarily appraised at the rates indi- 
cated for the most valuable products to which it is 
suited and for which an established market exists. 
Merchantable dead timber is appraised at the same 



194 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

rate as green timber of the same species unless it is 
clearly shown that the products manufactured from 
it command a lower market price or that logging 
costs are higher. 

Cutting Period. Ordinarily the cutting period 
allowed in each sale is only sufficient to permit the 
removal of the timber at a reasonable rate, approxi- 
mately equivalent to the working capacity of the 
plant. Sales of accessible timber usually do not 
exceed 5 years in length. However, in the case of 
inaccessible tracts requiring a large investment for 
transportation facilities an exception is made and 
periods of from 15 to 20 years may be granted. 

Readjustment of Stumpage Rates. In all sales 
exceeding 5 years in length provision is made to 
have the stumpage rates readjusted by the For- 
ester at the end of three or five year intervals to 
meet changing market and manufacturing condi- 
tions. 

Refunds. Deposits to cover or secure advance 
cutting or to accompany bids apply on the first pay- 
ment if a sale is awarded to the depositor; other- 
wise they will be refunded. Refunds are also made 
to the purchaser if the last payment is in excess of 
the value of the timber that is cut. 






S T, lo ? efl 

+3 : x - - c 






;j.J§ 


■2 ^ ■- :ij 








U ;- 4-i — - 




S£«MO 


^Gfcj^^^Wff ^^3SE 






^i Wfj o Ej 




x c .~ — OJ 






'#<xlisiiiP 


5 « J | « 


, ' %%&£?»':■ 


■ g it r 






$fflPp fe* 






e i- 2 .^ 


jSSgjf IrY '\ ' » ' 


3 £- ~? 5 u 




g | 1 7 = 




■— i y. ^3 ^ 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 195 

THE DISPOSAL OF TIMBER TO HOMESTEAD SETTLERS 
AND UNDER FREE USE 

Besides selling the timber and other forest prod- 
ucts outright, as has just been described, some tim- 
ber is sold to settlers at cost and much timber is 
given away to the local people under the free use 
policy. 

Sales to Homestead Settlers and Farmers. 
Sales to homestead settlers and farmers are made 
without advertisement in any amount desired, at 
the price fixed annually for each National Forest 
region of similar conditions by the Secretary, as 
equivalent to the actual cost of making and admin- 
istering such sales. Only material to be used by 
the purchaser for domestic purposes exclusively on 
homesteads or farms is sold in this way. Such uses 
include the construction or repair of farm buildings, 
fences, and other improvements and fuel. Such 
sales are restricted to mature dead and down timber 
which may be cut without injury to the forest. 

Free Use. Free use of timber is granted pri- 
marily to aid in the protection and silvicultural im- 
provement of the Forests. Hence the material 
taken is, except in unusual cases, restricted to dead, 



196 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

insect infested and diseased timber, and thinnings. 
Green material may be taken in exceptional cases 
where its refusal would clearly cause unwarranted 
hardship. The use of such material is granted 
freely: (1) To bona fide settlers, miners, resi- 
dents, prospectors, for fire wood, fencing, building, 
mining, prospecting, and other domestic purposes; 
and to any one in case its removal is necessary for 
the welfare of the Forest; (2) for the construction 
of telephone lines when necessary for the protec- 
tion of forests from fire; (3) to certain branches 
of the Federal Government. Free use is not 
granted for commercial purposes or of use in any 
business, including sawmills, hotels, stores, compa- 
nies or corporations. Such persons are required to 
purchase their timber. 

The aggregate amount of free use material 
granted annually to any user must not exceed $20 
in value, except in cases of unusual need or of dead 
or insect infested timber, the removal of which 
would be a benefit to the forest, or in the case of 
any timber which should be removed and whose sale 
under contract cannot be effected. In these cases 
the amount may be extended to $100. Supervisors 
have authority to grant free use permits up to 











6 At SS '5 ■ ■ 

'Kir* icfcj^ • >* -i? 







Figure 69. View showing the Forest Service method of piling the 
brush and debris after logging, and also how stump heights are kept 
down to prevent waste. New Mexico. 

Figure 70. A tie-cutting operation on a National Forest. These 
piles of railroad ties are being inspected, stamped, and counted by 
Forest rangers. From this point the ties are "skidded" to the banks 
of a stream to be floated to the shipping point. Near Evanston, 
Wyoming. 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 197 

$100, District Foresters up to $500, and larger 
amounts must have the approval of the Forester. 

Free use material is appraised in the same man- 
ner and in accordance with the same principles as 
timber purchased under sale agreements. The 
valuation of such material is at the same rate as 
that prevailing for similar grades of stumpage in 
current sales in the same locality. 

The magnitude of the free use business may be 
appreciated from the fact that during the fiscal 
year 1917 there were 41,427 individuals or compa- 
nies who received timber under this policy. The 
total amount thus given away was 113,073,000 
board feet valued at over $150,000. 

Permits for this use are required for green ma- 
terial, but dead timber may be taken without a per- 
mit. Supervisors designate as free-use areas cer- 
tain portions or all of any National Forest and 
settlers, miners, residents, and prospectors may cut 
and remove from such areas free of charge under 
Forest Service regulations any timber needed for 
their own use for firewood, fencing, buildings, min- 
ing, prospecting, or other domestic purposes. 

Material cut under free-use regulations must not 
be removed from the cutting area until scaled or 



198 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

measured by a Forest officer. In some cases this 
requirement is waived when by it the needs of the 
users are met with greater dispatch and the cost of 
administration is thereby reduced. The free-use 
applicant is required to utilize the trees cut in ac- 
cordance with local Forest Service practice and he 
is required to avoid unnecessary damage to young 
growth and standing timber. 

TIMBER SETTLEMENT AND ADMINISTRATIVE USE 

When timber on National Forest land is cut, 
damaged, killed, or destroyed in connection with 
the enjoyment of a right-of-way or other special 
use, it is not necessary to advertise it for sale, but 
payment therefor is required at not less than the 
minimum rate established by the Secretary of Agri- 
culture. Timber removed in this way is usually 
scaled, measured, or counted and the procedure is 
identical with that of a timber sale. But where 
timber is destroyed or where it is not worked up in 
measurable form or where the cutting is done in 
such a way that scaling is impracticable, settlement 
is required on the basis of an estimate. 

In 1912 a new branch of the Southern Pacific 
Railroad was built across a portion of the Lassen 




Figure 71. Brush piles on a cut-over area before burning. Forest 
Service methods aim to clean up the forest after logging so that 
forest fires have less inflammable material to feed on. Bitterroot 
National Forest. Montana. 

Figure 72. At a time of the year when there is least danger from 
fire the brush piles are burned. ' Missoula National Forest, Montana. 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 199 

National Forest in California. The company was 
going to use some of the timber, but most of it was 
to be destroyed or disposed of in the easiest manner. 
Scaling was impossible, so the company paid for 
the timber — about $10,000 — on the basis of a care- 
ful estimate made by the writer, then Forest 
Examiner. 

The charge for all such timber is made on the 
basis of the current stumpage rates for timber of 
like quality and accessibility included in sales for 
all classes of material which have to be cut or de- 
stroyed and which are commonly salable on the 
Forest. 

Timber is often used by the Forest Service itself 
in the administration of the National Forests. 
The Forester, District Foresters, and the Super- 
visors are authorized to sell or dispose of under 
free use or otherwise, within the amount each one 
is authorized to sell, any timber upon the National 
Forests when such removal is actually necessary to 
protect the Forest from ravages or destruction, or 
when the use or removal of the timber is necessary 
in the construction of roads, trails, cabins, and 
other improvements on the National Forests or in 
experiments conducted by the Forest Service. 



200 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

THE RENTAL OF NATIONAL FOREST RANGE LANDS 

The forage crop on the National Forests is for 
the use of the sheep and cattle of the western stock- 
men and it is procured by means of grazing per- 
mits which are issued and charged for upon a per 
capita basis. The primary objects of the adminis- 
tration of government grazing lands are: the pro- 
tection and conservative use of all National Forest 
land adapted to grazing; the permanent good of 
the live stock industry through the proper care and 
use of grazing lands ; and the protection of the set- 
tler and home builder against unfair competition 
in the use of the range. 

Importance of the Live Stock Industry. The 
grazing business, more than any other feature of 
National Forest management, is immensely prac- 
tical, because it is immediately concerned with hu- 
man interests. This industry furnishes not only 
meat, but leather, wool, and many by-products. 

That the National Forests play a big part in the 
maintenance of this industry there can be little 
doubt, for it has been estimated recently that 30 
per cent, of the sheep and 20 per cent, of the cattle 
of the far Western States are grazed in the Na- 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 201 

tional Forests. The Forests contain by far the 
largest part of the summer range lands in the far 
Western States and hence are of paramount im- 
portance. The winter grazing lands in the West 
are so much greater in area than the summer lands, 
that for this reason also National Forest range 
lands are in great demand. 

Permits Issued in 1917. During the fiscal year 
1917 more than 31,000 permits to graze cattle, hogs, 
or horses, and over 5,500 permits to graze sheep 
or goats were issued. These permits provided for 
2,054,384 cattle, 7,586,034 sheep, about 100,000 
horses, about 50,000 goats, and about 3,000 hogs. 
The total receipts for 1917 were over $1,500,000. 
The gross receipts to the owners of the stock 
probably exceeded $50,000,000 and the capital in- 
vested in the stock no doubt amounted to over 
$200,000,000. 

An idea of the growth of the grazing business 
may be gotten from the Forest Service statistics for 
the fiscal years 1908 and 1917. The increase in 
the number of permits and the volume of the busi- 
ness is due primarily to a better administration and 
better regulation of grazing interests and more 
specifically to the increase in the carrying capacity 



202 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

of government lands by wise and restricted use. 
Between these two fiscal years there was no appre- 
ciable increase in the total area of the Forests 
which would account for the increased business. 
In 1908 there were issued 19,845 permits for 1,382,- 
221 cattle, horses and hogs; in 1917 there were is- 
sued 31,136 permits for 2,054,384 animals. In 
1908 there were issued 4,282 permits for 7,087,111 
sheep and goats; in 1917 5,502 permits were issued 
for 7,586,034 sheep and goats. The number of 
cattle and horses grazed has increased therefore by 
50 per cent, and the number of sheep and goats 
by 7 per cent. The total receipts have increased 
from $962,829.40 in 1908 to $1,549,794.76 in 1917. 
Kinds of Range, Grazing Seasons, and Methods 
of Handling Stock. For the proper understand- 
ing of the grazing business on the National Forests 
it is necessary to know something about the differ- 
ent kinds of range, the length of grazing seasons, 
and the methods of handling different classes of 
stock. Sheep and goat range differs materially 
from cattle and horse range and the proper dis- 
tribution of stock over a National Forest cannot be 
effected unless this difference is recognized. Sheep 
and goat range usually consists of low shrubs or 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 203 

brush and is known collectively as "browse" ; cattle 
and horses subsist mainly upon grass, flowering 
plants and herbs. Sheep feel more at home on 
high mountain slopes, while cattle and horses range 
usually on the lower slopes and in the valleys, and 
especially in the broad meadows, around lakes and 
along streams. Sheep are more apt to find feed 
in the forests, that is under the trees ; cattle prefer 
the open; they usually avoid the forest, preferring 
to keep out on the open meadows and grassy slopes. 
Naturally some ranges have feed at some seasons 
of the year and other ranges at other seasons. 
Some of the National Forests in California extend 
from an elevation of a few hundred feet in the foot- 
hills of the great valleys to an elevation of more 
than 10,000 feet at the crest of the Sierra Nevada 
Mountains. The lower foothills afford excellent 
feed soon after the beginning of the fall rains in 
November and, due to the very mild winter which 
this region enjoys, there is excellent feed in Feb- 
ruary and March. This is known as winter range. 
The medium high slopes of the mountains have a 
later growing season and the sheep and cattle 
reach there about June and stay until August or 
September. Still higher up the forage matures 



204 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

later and the grazing season extends from August 
until November. At these elevations the snow- 
banks usually lie until July and the growing season 
is very short, for the new snow usually buries the 
vegetation about the first of November. Thus 
stockmen have what they call "winter range," 
"summer range," and "fall range," depending upon 
what seasons of the year the forage crop can be 
utilized. The National Forests on the whole con- 
tain very little winter range, hence stockmen must 
move their stock in the fall to private lands at 
lower elevations either where the climate is consid- 
erably warmer or where there is very little. snowfall. 
A large part of the western winter grazing lands 
are in regions of light snowfall, such as at the lower 
elevations in Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, and Colo- 
rado. Here the stock feeds on dry grass. Stock- 
men who cannot get winter range lands must feed 
their stock at ranches. 

The characteristic habits of sheep and cattle re- 
quire that they be handled differently on the range. 
Sheep are herded in bands while cattle are handled 
in scattered groups. The new and approved 
method of handling sheep called the "burro sys- 
tem" calls for a burro with the sheep to pack the 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 205 

herder's blankets and provisions. The herder 
camps where night overtakes him. The herder and 
his band keep moving over the allotted range from 
one camp to another until he has covered the whole 
range. After leaving his last camp he is ready to 
begin all over again, since the feed near the camp 
where he began has had two to three weeks' time 
to grow a new crop. Cattle usually run loose sin- 
gly or in groups on their allotted range. Usually 
a range rider is camped on the range to keep the 
cattle from straying to other ranges. He salts the 
cattle to keep them on their own range, takes care 
of cattle that have gotten sick, and takes care of 
the stock in other ways. 

Grazing Districts and Grazing Units. The Sec- 
retary of Agriculture not only has the authority 
to regulate grazing and prescribe the schedule of 
grazing fees to be charged but he also regulates 
the number and class of stock which are allowed to 
graze on each National Forest annually. 

The ranges within the National Forests are used 
by the kind of stock for which they are best adapted 
except when this would not be consistent with the 
welfare of local residents or the proper protection 
of the Forests. For convenience in administration 



206 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

Forests are divided into grazing districts. A typi- 
cal Forest is divided into from 4 to 6 districts which 
may be natural grazing units, natural administra- 
tive units (coinciding with the Ranger districts) , or 
parts of the Forest used by different classes of stock 
or parts of the Forest having different lengths of 
grazing seasons. Each grazing district is also sub- 
divided into smaller divisions, units, or allotments. 
These are usually natural divisions defined by top- 
ographic boundaries, such as ridges, mountains, 
streams, etc., or more or less artificial divisions 
determined by the class of stock which uses them. 
For example, cattle and horses ordinarily graze in 
the valleys along the streams, while sheep and goats 
graze the crests of ridges and the slopes of moun- 
tains and will cross none but shallow streams. 
Each range division or unit is usually given a well- 
known local name, such as "Duck Lake Unit" or 
"Clover Valley Unit." One or more stockmen may 
be allotted to such a unit, depending upon the size 
of the unit and the number of animals it can feed. 
If only one stockman.uses it, it becomes an individ- 
ual allotment. Usually a sheep owner with several 
large bands of sheep is allotted one large unit 
adapted to sheep grazing, while a large unit 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 207 

adapted to cattle and horses may be allotted to one 
large cattle owner or to two or more smaller own- 
ers. The manner in which sheep and goats are 
handled makes individual allotments both practica- 
ble and desirable. 

The boundaries of range allotments are usually 
well defined. In the case of sheep they are marked 
with cloth posters. In most Forests range allot- 
ments are fairly well settled. Each stockman gets 
with his permit each spring a small map showing 
his own range and the surrounding ranges. 

Who Are Entitled to Grazing Privileges. The 
Secretary of Agriculture has the authority to per- 
mit, regulate, or prohibit grazing on the National 
Forests. Under his direction the Forest Service 
allows the use of the forage crop as fully as the 
proper care and protection of the National Forests 
and the water supply permit. The grazing use of 
the National Forest lands is therefore only a per- 
sonal and non-transferable privilege. This privi- 
lege is a temporary one, allowable under the law 
only when it does not interfere with the purposes 
for which the National Forests were created. It is 
non-transferable because it is based upon the pos- 
session of certain qualifications peculiar to the per- 



208 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

mittee. To understand these qualifications it is 
necessary to briefly look into the history of the graz- 
ing of live stock on the western grazing lands. 

By long use of the public lands of the United 
States for grazing purposes, long before the Na- 
tional Forests were created, stock owners have been 
allowed to graze their stock upon such lands under 
certain conditions of occupancy, residence, and 
ownership of improved lands and water rights. 
This use, continuing through a long period of 
years, has, in the absence of congressional legisla- 
tion, been commonly accepted in many communi- 
ties, even receiving the recognition of certain of the 
courts. It was allowed under "unwritten law," as 
it were, only by the passive consent of the United 
States, but by force of the presidential proclama- 
tion creating National Forests, such passive con- 
sent ceased, being superseded by definite regula- 
tions by the Secretary of Agriculture prescribed 
under the authority of Congress. Therefore graz- 
ing stock on the Forests, as it was done before the 
Forests were created, is trespass against the United 
States. Due to the fact that local stockmen have 
used certain public ranges year after year by the 
passive consent of the United States, these stock- 





Figure 73. Counting sheep as they leave the corral. Sheep and 
cattle are pastured on National Forests at so many cents per head, 
hence they must be counted before they enter in the spring. Wa- 
satch National Forest, Utah. 



Figure 74. Logging National Forest timber. 
Forest, New Mexico. 



Santa Fe National 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 209 

men are recognized in these localities as having 
preference rights or equities in the use of range 
lands. These equities form the basis upon which 
grazing privileges are allowed. 

Grazing permits are issued only to persons enti- 
tled to share in the use of the range within the Na- 
tional Forests by reason of their fulfilling certain 
conditions or requirements. Prior use and occu- 
pancy of National Forest lands for grazing pur- 
poses is the first and foremost requirement. Local 
residence and ownership of improved ranch prop- 
erty within or near the Forest and dependence 
upon government range are also conditions that 
may entitle a stockman to grazing privileges. The 
Forest Service also recognizes those stockmen who 
have acquired by purchase or inheritance stock 
grazed upon National Forest lands under permit 
and improved ranch property used in connection 
with the stock, provided circumstances warrant the 
renewal of the permit issued to the former owner. 
The regular use of a range during its open season 
for several successive years before the creation of 
the National Forest and under grazing permit 
thereafter is what is meant by "prior use" or "regu- 
lar occupancy." The longer the period or use the 



210 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

greater the preference right. No one can acquire 
this right to the use of National Forest range, nor 
can it be bought or sold, but stockmen may acquire 
a preference in the allotment of grazing privileges. 
This preference right does not entitle him to con- 
tinued use of a certain part of a Forest, but only to 
preference over other applicants less entitled to 
consideration in the use of the ranges open to the 
class of stock which he wishes to graze. Certain 
stockmen may be given preference in ranges se- 
cured by prior use and occupancy supplemented by 
heavy investments in improved property and water 
rights. 

Citizens of the United States are given prefer- 
ence in the use of the National Forests, but persons 
who are not citizens may be allowed grazing permits 
provided they are bona fide residents and owners of 
improved ranch property either within or adjacent 
to a National Forest. Regular occupants of the 
range who own and reside upon improved ranch 
property in or near National Forests are given first 
consideration, but will be limited to a number 
which will not exclude regular occupants who re- 
side or whose stock are wintered at a greater dis- 
tance from the National Forests. With this pro- 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 211 

vision applicants for grazing permits are given 
preference in the following order: 

Class A. Persons owning and residing upon improved ranch 
property within or near a National Forest who are de- 
pendent upon National Forests for range and who do not 
own more than a limited number of stock (known as the 
protective limit). 

Class B. Regular users of National Forests range who do 
not own improved ranch property within or near a Na- 
tional Forest, and persons owning such ranch property 
but who own numbers of stock in excess of the established 
limit. 

Class C. Persons who are not regular users of the National 
Forest range and who do not own improved ranch prop- 
erty within or near a National Forest. Such persons are 
not granted permits upon Forests which are fully oc- 
cupied by classes A and B. Classes B and C are not 
allowed to increase the number of stock grazed under 
permit except by the purchase of other permitted stock. 

From this classification it is very evident that the 
small local stockmen who own approximately from 
30 to 300 head of cattle and from 500 to 2,000 head 
of sheep and who own and reside upon the ranches 
near the Forests are given the preference in the al- 
lotment of grazing privileges. 

Grazing Permits. Various kinds of grazing per- 
mits are required each year on the National For- 
ests. These are known as ordinary grazing per- 



212 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

mits, on-and-off permits, private land permits, and 
crossing permits. 

All persons must secure permits before grazing 
any stock on a National Forest except for the few 
head in actual use by prospectors, campers, ranch- 
ers, stockmen, and travelers who use saddle, pack 
and work animals, and milch cows in connection 
with permitted operations on the National Forests. 
Under these conditions 10 head are allowed to 
graze without permit. 

Persons owning stock which regularly graze on 
ranges partially included within a National Forest, 
or upon range which includes private land may be 
granted permits for such portions of their stock as 
the circumstances appear to justify. This regula- 
tion provides for cases where only a part of a nat- 
ural range unit is National Forest land, and where 
the economical use of the entire unit can be secured 
only by the utilization of the Forest land in con- 
nection with the other land. The regulation con- 
templates a movement of the stock governed by 
natural conditions, between the Forest range and 
the adjoining outside range, or between Forest 
land and intermingled private land. This is called 
an on-and-off permit. 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 213 

Permits on account of private lands are issued to 
persons who own, or who have leased from the 
owners, unfenced lands within any National Forest 
which are so situated and of such a character that 
they may be used by other permitted stock to an 
extent rendering the exchange advantageous to the 
Government. The permits allow the permittees to 
graze upon National Forest land, free of charge, 
the number of stock which the private lands will 
support, by waiving the right to the exclusive use 
of the private land and allowing it to remain open 
to other stock grazed on National Forest land un- 
der permit. 

The regular grazing permit carries with it the 
privilege of driving the permitted stock over Na- 
tional Forest lands to and from the allotted ranges 
at the beginning and end of the grazing season 
and from the range to the most accessible shearing, 
dipping, and shipping points during the term of the 
permit. But crossing permits are necessary for 
crossing stock over National Forest lands to points 
beyond the National Forest, for crossing stock to 
private lands within a National Forest, or for cross- 
ing stock to reach dipping vats or railroad shipping 
points. Rangers sometimes are detailed to accom- 



214 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

pany the stock and see that there is no delay or 
trespassing. No charge is made for crossing per- 
mits, but it is absolutely necessary that persons 
crossing stock comply with the regulations govern- 
ing the National Forests and with the quarantine 
regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agricul- 
ture and the state authorities. 

Grazing Fees. The full grazing fee is charged 
on all animals under 6 months of age which are not 
the natural increase of stock upon which the fees 
are paid. Animals under 6 months which are the 
natural increase of permitted stock are not charged 
for. A reasonable fee is charged for grazing all 
kinds of live stock on National Forests. The rates 
are based upon the yearlong rate for cattle, which is 
from 60 cents to $1.50 per head, depending upon 
conditions on the Forest. The yearlong rates for 
horses are 25 per cent, more and the yearlong rate 
for swine 25 per cent, less than the rate for cat- 
tle. The rate for sheep is 25 per cent, of the year- 
long rate for cattle. The rates for all kinds of 
stock for periods shorter than yearlong are com- 
puted in proportion to the length of the season dur- 
ing which the stock use National Forest lands. All 
grazing fees are payable in advance. 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 215 

When notice of the grazing allowance, periods, 
and rates for the year has been received by the 
Supervisor he gives public notice of a date on or 
before which all applications for grazing must be 
presented to him. These public notices are posted 
in conspicuous places, usually in the post offices. 
Applications for grazing permits are submitted on 
blank forms furnished by the Supervisor. As soon 
as an applicant for a grazing permit is notified by 
the Supervisor that his application has been ap- 
proved, he must remit the amount due for grazing 
fees to the District Fiscal Agent and upon receipt 
of notice by the Supervisor that payment has been 
made a permit is issued allowing the stock to enter 
the Forest and remain during the period specified. 
All grazing fees are payable in advance and the 
stock is not allowed to enter the National Forest 
unless payment has been made. 

Stock Associations. The thirty or more grazing 
regulations effective on the National Forests are 
for the primary purpose of making the National 
Forest range lands as useful as possible to the 
people consistent with their protection and perpetu- 
ation. It is clearly impossible to meet the wishes 
and needs of each individual user, but it is often 



216 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

entirely possible to meet the wishes of the majority 
of users if made known through an organization. 
The organization of stock associations is encour- 
aged by the Forest Service and the opinions and 
wishes of their advisory boards are recognized when 
they represent general rather than individual or 
personal interests. It is often possible through 
these organizations to construct range improve- 
ments such as corrals, drift fences, roads, trails, and 
sources of water supply for the common good of 
the members of the organization and paid for by 
them. 

Protective and Maximum Limits. In order to 
secure an equitable distribution of grazing privi- 
leges, the District Forester establishes protective 
limits covering the number of stock for which the 
permits of Class A owners will be exempt from 
reduction in the renewal of their permits. Permits 
for numbers in excess of the protective limits will 
be subject to necessary reductions and will not be 
subject to increase in number except through pur- 
chase of stock or ranches of other permittees. 

Protective limits are established to protect per- 
mittees from reduction in the number of stock 
which they are allowed to graze under permit below 










Figure 75. Sheep grazing on the Montezuma National Forest at 
the foot of Mt. Wilson, Colorado. Over 7,500,000 sheep and goats 
grazed on the National Forests during the fiscal year 1917. 

Figure 76. Grazing cattle on a National Forest in Colorado. 
Permits were issued during 1917 to graze over x?,000,000 cattle, horses, 
and swine on the National Forests. 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 217 

a point where the business becomes too small to be 
handled at a profit or to contribute its proper share 
toward the maintenance of a home. The average 
number of stock which a settler must graze in order 
to utilize the products of his farm and derive a 
reasonable profit is determined upon each Forest 
or, if necessary, upon each grazing district thereof, 
and serves as the basis for the protective limit. 
Protective limits have been established for various 
Forests running from 25 to 300 head of cattle and 
from 500 to 2,000 head of sheep and goats. 

Increases above the protective limit are allowed 
only to purchasers of stock and ranches of permit 
holders and any such increase must not exceed the 
maximum limit. Class A permittees owning a less 
number of stock than the protective limit are al- 
lowed to increase their number gradually. When- 
ever it is found necessary to reduce the number of 
stock allowed in any National Forest, Class C stock 
is excluded before the other classes are reduced. 
The reduction on a sliding scale is then applied to 
Class B owners. Class A owners are exempt from 
reduction. When new stock owners are allowed 
the use of National Forest range upon a Forest 
already fully stocked, reductions in the number of 



218 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

permitted stock of Class B and C owners is made 
in order to make room for the new man. Thus it is 
seen that the matter of protective limits is actually 
a protection to the small stock owner; he is pro- 
tected from the monopoly of the range by big cor- 
porations. 

When necessary to prevent monopoly of the 
range by large stock owners, the District Forester 
establishes maximum limits in the number of stock 
for which a permit may be issued to any one person, 
firm or corporation. 

Prohibition of Grazing. It often becomes neces- 
sary to prohibit all grazing on an area within a 
National Forest or at least to materially reduce the 
amount of stock which is allowed to graze on a given 
area. Sheep may be excluded from a timber-sale 
area for a certain number of years after cutting or 
until the reproduction has become well established. 
Where planting operations are being carried on it 
is usually necessary to exclude all classes of stock. 
If investigations show that grazing is responsible 
for the lack of reproduction over a considerable 
area, the area or a portion of it may be withdrawn 
from range use until young growth has become 
established again. The watersheds of streams sup- 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 219 

plying water for irrigation, municipal or domestic 
purposes may be closed to grazing of any or all 
kinds of domestic stock when necessary to prevent 
erosion and floods or diminution in water supply. 
Camping grounds required for the accommodation 
of the public may be closed to the grazing of per- 
mitted stock. Limited areas which are the natural 
breeding or feeding grounds of game animals or 
birds may be closed to grazing. Areas within Na- 
tional Forests infested seriously by poisonous 
plants may be closed to grazing. 

Protection of Grazing Interests. The protec- 
tion of National Forest grazing interests is secured 
by the prevention of overgrazing, by the preven- 
tion of damage to roads, trails, or water sources, by 
the proper bedding of sheep and goats, by the 
proper disposition of carcasses, by salting the stock 
and by the proper observation of the national and 
state live stock and quarantine laws. 

When an owner, who has a permit, is ready to 
drive in his stock upon the National Forest he must 
notify the nearest Forest officer concerning the 
number to be driven in. If called upon to do so he 
must provide for having his stock counted before 
entering a National Forest. Each permittee must 



220 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

repair all damage to roads or trails caused by the 
presence of his stock. Sheep and goats are not al- 
lowed to be bedded more than three nights in suc- 
cession in the same place (except during the lamb- 
ing season) and must not be bedded within 300 
yards of any running or living spring. The car- 
casses of all animals which die on the National For- 
ests from contagious or infectious diseases must be 
burned and are not permitted to lie in the close 
vicinity of water. In order to facilitate the han- 
dling of stock and prevent their straying off their 
range, they must be salted at regular intervals and 
at regular places. 

In order to facilitate the moving of stock by 
stockmen from their home ranches to their grazing 
allotments and to minimize the damage of grazing 
animals to the Forests, stock driveways are estab- 
lished over regular routes of travel. 

SPECIAL USES 

All uses of National Forest lands and resources 
permitted by the Secretary of Agriculture, except 
those specifically provided for in the regulations 
covering water power, timber sales, timber settle- 
ment, the free use of timber, and grazing, are desig- 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 221 

nated "special uses." Among these are the use or 
occupancy of lands for residences, farms, apiaries, 
dairies, schools, churches, stores, mills, factories, 
hotels, sanitariums, summer resorts, telephone and 
telegraph lines, roads and railways; the occupancy 
of lands for dams, reservoirs and conduits not used 
for power purposes ; and the use of stone, sand, and 
gravel. No charge is made for a large number of 
these permits, some of which are the following: 
(1) agricultural use by applicants having prefer- 
ence rights under the Act of June 11, 1906; (2) 
schools, churches, and cemeteries; (3) cabins for 
the use of miners, prospectors, trappers, and stock- 
men in connection with grazing permits; (4) saw 
mills sawing principally National Forest timber; 
(5) conduits, and reservoirs for irrigation or min- 
ing or for municipal water supply; (6) roads and 
trails (which must be free public highways) ; (7) 
telephone lines and telegraph lines with free use of 
poles and connections for the Forest Service. 

The occupancy and use of National Forest land 
or resources under a special use permit (except 
those given free of charge) are conditioned upon 
the payment of a charge and are based upon certain 
rates. Agricultural use of land is given to permit- 



222 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

tees at a charge of from 25 cents to $1.00 an acre. 
Not over 160 acres are allowed to any one permit- 
tee. Cabins cost from $3.00 to $5.00 ; hay cutting 
from 20 to 50 cents an acre ; hotels and roadhouses 
from $10.00 to $50.00; pastures from 4 to 25 cents 
per acre; residences covering from one to three 
acres cost from $5.00 to $25.00; resorts from $10.00 
to $50.00; stores from $5.00 to $50.00 for two acres 
or less; and other uses in proportion. 

Perhaps the use that is purchased most of all on 
the National Forests is that for residences and sum- 
mer homes. On many of the Forests they are al- 
ready in great demand. A large proportion of the 
population of the far Western States seek the cool 
and invigorating air of the mountains in the early 
summer because the heat of the valleys, especially 
in California, is almost unbearable. 

There are many desirable pieces of land on the 
National Forests that are being reserved by the 
Forest Service especially for this purpose for the 
people of the neighboring towns. For example, on 
the Angeles National Forest in California the Su- 
pervisor had about 250 suitable sites surveyed in one 
picturesque canyon and in six months 226 of them 
were under special use permits as summer homes. 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 223 

A large reservoir — Huntington Lake — was con- 
structed on the Sierra National Forest in California 
as the result of a dam constructed by a hydro- 
electric power company. Immediately there was a 
keen demand among the residents of San Joaquin 
Valley for summer homes on the shores of the lake. 
In a few years it is expected there will be a per- 
manent summer colony of from 2,000 to 3,000 peo- 
ple. The Forest Service has already authorized an 
expenditure of $1,500 in order to furnish an ade- 
quate supply of domestic water for the colony. 

CLAIMS AND SETTLEMENT 

Claims can be initiated upon National Forest 
lands under (1) the Act of June 11, 1906, (2) un- 
der the mining laws, and (3) under the coal land 
laws. In connection with these claims it is the duty 
of the Forest Service to examine them, but the de- 
termination of questions involving title is within the 
jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior. 

It is the purpose of the Forest Service to protect 
the lands of the United States within the National 
Forests from acquisition by those who do not seek 
them for purposes recognized by law. When it is 
apparent that an entry or a claim is not initiated 



224 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

in good faith and in compliance with the spirit of 
the law under which it was asserted, but is believed 
from the facts to be a subterfuge to acquire title 
to timber land, or to control range privileges, water, 
a waterpower site, or rights of way; or if it other- 
wise interferes with the interests of the National 
Forests in any way, the Forest Service recommends 
a contest, even if the technical requirements of the 
law appear to have been fulfilled. It is bad faith, 
for instance, to hold a mining or agricultural claim 
primarily for the timber thereon or to acquire a 
site valuable for water power development. 

The National Forest Homestead Act. At the 
present time there is very little, if any, fraud con- 
nected with the Forest Homestead Act because the 
land is classified before it is opened to entry. The 
greater part of the work dealing with fraudulent 
claims is a relic of the old regime. Before the For- 
ests were established many Homestead and Timber 
and Stone entries were made for the purpose of 
securing valuable timber. A large number of per- 
sons resorted to settlement in order to secure the 
preference right. It was the common custom in 
those days for land cruisers to locate men on heavily 
timbered land either before or immediately after 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 225 

survey and before the filing of the plats and the 
opening of the land to entry. A cabin would be 
built upon the land and some unsubstantial im- 
provements made. When the National Forests 
were created they contained great numbers of these 
squatters' cabins. Many were abandoned but oth- 
ers attempted to secure title. Under the old Tim- 
ber'and Stone Act timber could be secured for $2.50 
per acre, but the National Forests are not subject 
to entry under this act. So as a last resort the 
squatters tried to prove up on the land under the 
Homestead law. When the Forests were created 
the Service found a great many of these fraudulent 
claims on their books, many of which were being 
brought up annually for patent. Between Decem- 
ber, 1908, and June 30, 1913, a total of 498 entries 
for National Forest land were canceled in a single 
administrative district. These entries represented 
fraudulent efforts to secure title to 85,906 acres of 
National Forest land for speculative purposes, in- 
volving nearly a billion feet of merchantable tim- 
ber. During the fiscal year 1913 alone 300,000,000 
board feet of merchantable timber in one district 
was retained in public ownership primarily because 
the Forest officers brought out the facts. The lands 



226 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

in all cases were covered with heavy stands of tim- 
ber, very small portions of the land had been 
cleared, the claimant's residence on the land was not 
in compliance with the law, seldom was any crop 
raised on the land, and the claimant in other ways 
did not carry out the intent of the law. 

The Act of June 11, 1906, known as the National 
Forest Homestead Act, provides for the acquisition 
by qualified entrymen of agricultural lands within 
National Forests. The Act is in effect an exten- 
sion of the general provisions of the Homestead 
laws to the agricultural lands within the National 
Forests, with the essential difference that the land 
must be classified by the Secretary of Agriculture 
as chiefly valuable for agriculture. 

This Act authorizes the Secretary of Agricul- 
ture in his discretion to examine and ascertain, 
upon application or otherwise, the location and ex- 
tent of lands both surveyed and unsurveyed in the 
National Forests, chiefly valuable for agriculture, 
which may be occupied for agricultural purposes 
without injury to the National Forests or public in- 
terests. He is authorized to list and describe such 
lands by metes and bounds or otherwise and to file 
such lists and descriptions with the Secretary of the 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 227 

Interior for opening to entry in accordance with 
the provisions of the Act. Agricultural lands 
listed by the Secretary of Agriculture are opened 
by the Secretary of the Interior to homestead entry 
in tracts not exceeding 160 acres at the expiration 
of 60 days from the filing of the lists in the local 
Land Office. Notice of the filing of the list is 
posted in the local Land Office and is published for 
a period of not less than four weeks in a local news- 
paper. The Act provides that the person upon 
whose application the land is examined and listed, 
if a qualified entryman, shall have the preference 
right of entry. To exercise this preference right, 
application to enter must be filed in the local Land 
Office within 60 days after the filing of the list in 
that office. The entryman can perfect his title to 
the land within a certain period of years by fulfill- 
ing certain conditions of residence and cultivation. 
By the Act of June 6, 1912, known as the "Three 
Year Homestead Act," the period of residence 
necessary to be shown in order to entitle a person to 
patent under the Homestead laws is reduced from 
5 to 3 years and the period within which a home- 
stead entry may be completed is reduced from 7 to 
5 years. The new law requires the claimant to 



228 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

cultivate not less than Ke of the area of his entry 
beginning with the second year of entry and not 
less than Vs beginning with the third year and until 
final proof, except that in the case of the enlarged 
Homestead laws, double the areas given are re- 
quired. On a 160-acre claim, therefore, it is re- 
quired that Vs or 20 acres be under cultivation. A 
mere breaking of the soil does not meet the require- 
ments of the statute, but such breaking of the soil 
must be accompanied by planting and sowing of 
seed and tillage for a crop other than native grasses. 
The period within which the cultivation should be 
made is reckoned from the date of the entry. The 
Secretary of the Interior, however, is authorized 
upon a satisfactory showing therefor to reduce the 
required area of cultivation on account of financial 
disabilities or misfortunes of the entryman or on 
account of special physical and climatic conditions 
of the land which make cultivation difficult. The 
entryman must establish an actual residence upon 
the land entered, 6 months after the date of the 
entry. After the establishment of residence the 
entryman is permitted to be absent from the land 
for one continuous period of not more than 5 
months in each year following. He must also file 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 229 

at the local Land Office notice of the beginning of 
such intended absence. 

The Mining Laws. Mineral deposits within 
National Forests are open to development exactly 
as on unreserved public land. A prospector can 
go anywhere he chooses and stake a claim wherever 
he finds any evidences of valuable minerals. The 
only restriction is that mining claims must be bona 
fide ones and not taken up for the purpose of ac- 
quiring valuable timber or a town or a water power 
site, or to monopolize the water supply of a stock 
range. Prospectors may obtain a certain amount 
of National Forest timber free of charge to be used 
in developing their claims. More than 500 mining 
claims are patented within the National Forests 
every fiscal year. 

A good example of mining claims located for 
fraudulent purposes were those located on the rim 
and sides of the Grand Canyon in Arizona to pre- 
vent the people from gaining free access to the 
canyon and make them pay to enter it. These 
claims were shown to be fraudulent since no de- 
posits of any kind were ever found on them. They 
were canceled by the higher courts and the land 
reverted to the people. 



230 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

Coal-Land Laws. Coal lands are mineral lands 
and as such are subject to entry the same as other 
mineral lands in the National Forests. 

ADMINISTRATIVE USE OF NATIONAL FOREST LANDS 

Lands within National Forests may be selected 
for administrative uses such as Supervisor's and 
Ranger's headquarters, gardens, pastures, corrals, 
planting or nursery sites or rights-of-way. These 
administrative sites are necessary for the present 
and probable future requirements of the Forest 
Service for fire protection and the transaction of 
business on the National Forests. 

WATER POWER, TELEPHONE, TELEGRAPH, AND 
POWER TRANSMISSION LINES 

Along the streams within the National Forests 
are many sites suitable for power development. 
These are open to occupancy for such purposes and 
have the advantage of being on streams whose head- 
waters are protected. The aggregate capacity of 
the water power sites on the National Forests is 
estimated at 12,000,000 horsepower. 

The Government does not permit the monopo- 
lization of power in any region or allow sites to be 




Figure 77. North Clear Creek Falls. Rio Grande National Forest, 
Colorado. The National Forests contain about one-third of all the 
potential water-power resources of the United States. 

Figure 78. The power plant of the Colorado Power Company, on 
the Grand River, Holy Cross National Forest. Colorado. Every fis- 
cal year there is a substantial increase in water power development 
on the National Forests. 



NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 231 

held for speculative purposes. The objects of the 
regulations are to secure prompt and full develop- 
ment and to obtain a reasonable compensation for 
the use of the land occupied and the beneficial pro- 
tection given the watershed. 

Permits for power development on the National 
Forests usually run for a term of 50 years and may 
be renewed at their expiration upon compliance 
with the regulations then existing. Such permits, 
while granting liberal terms to applicants, contain 
ample provision for the protection of the public 
interests. 

Applications for power permits are filed with the 
District Forester of the Forest Service District in 
which the desired site is located. Preliminary per- 
mits are issued to protect an applicant's priority 
against subsequent applicants until he has had an 
opportunity to study the proper location and de- 
sign of the project and to obtain the data necessary 
for the final application. Operation is allowed 
under the final permit only. The permittee is re- 
quired to pay an annual rental charge under the 
preliminary and final power permits and definite 
periods are specified for the filing of tlie final appli- 
cation, beginning of construction and of operation. 



232 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 

The rental charges are nominal in amount, the 
maximum being about Vie of a cent per kilowatt 
hour. The amount of annual payment for trans- 
mission lines is $5.00 for each mile or fraction 
thereof if National Forest land is crossed by the 
line. No rental charges are made for small power 
projects (under 100 horsepower capacity), or for 
transmission lines used in connection therewith, or 
for transmission lines which are part of a power 
project under permit or for any power project in 
which power is to be used by a municipal corpora- 
tion for municipal purposes. 

The Secretary of Agriculture has authority to 
permit the use of rights-of-way through the Na- 
tional Forests for conduits, reservoirs, power 
plants, telephone and telegraph lines to be used for 
irrigation, mining, and domestic purposes and for 
the production and transmission of electric power. 
No rental charges are made for the telephone and 
telegraph rights-of-way, but the applicant must 
agree to furnish such facilities to Forest officers and 
to permit such reasonable use of its poles or lines 
as may be determined or agreed upon between the 
applicant and the District Forester. 




X^ttgMjJHi^feg 




Figure 79. This is only one of the thousands of streams in the 
National Forests of the West capable of generating electric power. 
It has been estimated that over 40 per cent, of the water power 
resources of the western states are included in the National Forests. 
Photo by the author. 

Figure 80. View in the famous orange belt of San Bernardino 
County, California. These orchards depend absolutely upon irriga- 
tion. The watersheds from which the necessary water comes are in 
the National Forests and are protected by the Forest Service. Some 
of the smaller watersheds in these mountains are said to irrigate 
orchards valued at $10,000,000. 



APPENDIX 

TABLE OF LAND AREAS WITHIN THE NATIONAL 

FOREST BOUNDARIES 

June 30, 1917 







Headquarters 


National 


Patented 






» 1 


of 


Forest 


and other 


Total 


State and Forest 


Forest 


Land 


lands 


area 




SI 


Supervisor 


(acres) 


(acres) 


(acres) 


ALASKA 












Chugach 


6 


Ketchikan 


5,418,753 


113,682 


5,532,435 


Tongass 


6 


Ketchikan 


15,451,716 


29,284 


15,481,000 


ARIZONA 












Apache 


3 


Springerville 


1,182,782 


93,618 


1,276,400 


Chiricahua i 


3 


Tucson 


348,157 


10,691 


358,848 


Coconino 


3 


Flagstaff 


1,601,598 


161,799- 


1,763,397 


Coronado 


3 


Tucson 


959,304 


39,676 


998,980 


Crook 


3 


Safford 


870,130 


14,870 


885,000 


Dixie i 


4 


St. George, 












Utah 


17,680 




17,680 


Kaibab 


4 


Kanab, Utah 


1,072,375 


525 


1,072,900 


Manzano i 


3 


Albuquerque, 












N. M. 


27,708 


29,724 


57,432 


Prescott 


3 


Prescott 


1,433,366 


186,589 


1,619,955 


Sitgreaves 


3 


Snowflake 


659,337 


234,883 


893,720 


Tonto 


3 


Roosevelt 


1,994,239 


39,521 


2,033,760 


Tusayan 


3 


Williams 


1,602,750 


186,068 


1,788,818 


ARKANSAS 












Arkansas 


7 


Hot Springs 


626,746 


331,514 


958,290 


Ozark 


7 


Harrison 


291,840 


237,338 


529,178 


CALIFORNIA 










Angeles 


5 


Los Angeles 


820,980 


240,723 


1,061,703 


California 


5 


Oriental 


807,444 


255,178 


1,062,622 


Cleveland 


5 


Escondido 


547,981 


265,635 


813,616 


Crater i 


6 


Medford, Ore. 


46,977 


10,045 


57,022 


Eldorado i 


5 


Placerville 


549,392 


286,408 


835,800 


Inyo i 


5 


Bishop 


1,269,980 


67,800 


1,337,780 


Klamath i 


5 


Yreka 


1,470,841 


263,824 


1,734,665 


Lassen 


5 


Red Bluff 


936,877 


384,466 


1,321,343 


Modoc 


5 


Alturas 


1,182,986 


399,873 


1,532,859 



l Area of National Forest in more than one State. 
233 



234 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 



TABLE OF LAND 


AREAS — Continued 






"5 & Headquarters 


National 


Patented 






II of 


Forest 


and other 


Total 


State and Forest 


g 3 


Forest 


Land 


lands 


area 




5& 


Supervisor 


(acres) 


(acres) 


(acres) 


Mono i 


5 


Gardnerville, 












Nev. 


784,620 


90,241 


874,861 


Monterey 


5 


King City 


316,058 


44,436 


360,494 


Plumas 


5 


Quincy 


1,144,835 


288,025 


1,432,860 


Santa Bar- 












bara 


5 


Santa Barbara 


1,688,571 


239,723 


1,928,294 


Sequoia 


5 


Bakersfield 


2,194,926 


274,344 


2,469,270 


Shasta 


5 


Sisson 


803,448 


783,432 


1,586,880 


Sierra 


5 


Northfork 


1,489,934 


172,626 


1,662,560 


Siskiyou i 


6 


Grants Pass, 












Ore. 


349,069 


52,726 


401,795 


Stanislaus 


5 


Sonora 


810,399 


294,013 


1,104,412 


Tahoe 


5 


Nevada City 


542,226 


666,851 


1,209,077 


Trinity 


5 


Weaverville 


1,430,547 


315,600 


1,746,147 


COLORADO 












Arapaho 


2 


Hot Sulphur 












Springs 


634,903 


46371 


681,274 


Battlement 


2 


Collbran 


651,227 


26,113 


677,340 


Coehetopa 


2 


Saguache 


905,723 


24,497 


930,220 


Colorado 


2 


Fort Collins 


847,328 


302,266 


1,149,594 


Durango 


2 


Durango 


614,129 


89,871 


704,000 


Gunnison 


2 


Gunnison 


908,055 


43,255 


951,310 


Hayden i 


2 


Encampment, 












Wyo. 


65,598 


6,402 


72,000 


Holy Cross 


2 


Glenwood 












Springs 


576,905 


28,795 


605,700 


La Sali 


4 


Moab, Utah 


27,444 


176 


27,620 


Leadville 


2 


Leadville 


934,017 


122,503 


1,056,520 


Montezuma 


2 


Mancos 


700,082 


112,018 


812,100 


Pike 


2 


Denver 


1,080,381 


175,731 


1,256,112 


Rio Grande 


2 


Monte Vista 


1,136,884 


84,256 


1,221,140 


Routt 


2 


Steamboat 












Springs 


833,459 


86,487 


919,946 


San Isabel 


2 


Westeliffe 


598,912 


52,288 


651,200 


San Juan 


2 


Pagosa Spgs. 


617,995 


127,005 


745,000 


Sopris 


2 


Aspen 


596,986 


59,014 


656,000 


Uncampahgre 2 


Delta 


790,349 


77,511 


867,860 


White River 


2 


Meeker 


848,018 


23,012 


871,030 


FLORIDA 












Florida 


7 


Pensacola 


308,268 


367,152 


675,420 


IDAHO 












Boise 


4 


Boise 


1,058,941 


59,173 


1,118,114 


Cache i 


4 


Logan, Utah 


513,617 


31,447 


545,064 



l Area of National Forest in more than one State. 



APPENDIX 



235 



TABLE OF LAND AREAS— Continued 





Headquarters 


National 


Patented 




'£"8 
State and Forest £ § 


of 


Forest 


and other 


Total 


Forest 


Land 


lands 


area 


Qlz; 


Supervisor 


(acres) 


(acres) 


(acres) 


Caribou * 4 


Montpelier 


681,540 


30,090 


711,630 


Challis 4 


Challis 


1,259,237 


10,753 


1,269,990 


Clearwater 1 


Orofino 


785,103 


122,743 


907,846 


Coeur 










d'Alene 1 


Coeur d'Alene 


662,611 


127,623 


790,234 


Idaho 4 


MeCall 


1,193,439 


15,841 


1,209,280 


Kaniksu i 1 


Newport, 










Wash. 


198,757 


260,220 


458,977 


Lemhi 4 


Mackay 


1,095,924 


4,638 


1,100,562 


Minidoka i 4 


Oakley 


509,536 


21,584 


531,120 


Nezperce 1 


Grangeville 


1,624,582 


41,497 


1,666,079 


Palisade i 4 


St. Anthony 


283,495 


9,820 


293,315 


Payette 4 


Emmett 


831,926 


31,748 


863,674 


Pehd Oreille 1 


Sandpoint 


676,014 


198,724 


874,738 


St. Joe 1 


St. Maries 


493,925 


481,743 


975,668 


Salmon 4 


Salmon 


1,621,707 


21,653 


1,643,360 


Sawtooth 4 


Hailey 


1,203,387 


16,743 


1,220,130 


Selway 1 


Kooskia 


1,693,711 


108,289 


1,802,000 


Targhee * 4 


St. Anthony 


283,495 


9,820 


293,315 


Weiser 4 


Weiser 


562,609 


98,291 


660,900 


MICHIGAN 










Michigan 2 


East Tawas 


89,466 


74,412 


163,878 


MINNESOTA 










Minnesota 2 


Cass Lake 


190,602 


121,874 


312,476 


Superior 2 


Ely 


857,255 


411,283 


1,268,538 


MONTANA 










Absaroka 1 


Livingston 


842,467 


145,243 


987,710 


Beartooth 1 


Billings 


662,537 


19,393 


681,930 


Beaverhead 1 


Dillon 


1,337,223 


27,777 


1,365,000 


Bitterroot 1 


Missoula 


1,047,012 


108,856 


1,155,868 


Blackfeet 1 


Kalispell 


865,077 


202,013 


1,067,090 


Cabinet 1 


Thompson 










Falls 


830,676 


195,874 


1,026,550 


Custer 1 


Miles City 


428,922 


83,888 


512,810 


Deerlodge 1 


Anaconda 


833,178 


130,822 


964,000 


Flathead 1 


Kalispell 


1,802,905 


285,815 


2,088,720 


Gallatin 1 


Bozeman 


564,855 


344,575 


909,430 


Helena 1 


Helena 


687,983 


232,497 


920,480 


Jefferson 1 


Great Falls 


1,039,766 


135,919 


1,175,685 


Kootenai 1 


Libby 


1,336,061 


287,279 


1,623,340 


Lewis and 










Clark 1 


Chouteau 


811,161 


15,199 


826,360 


Lolo 1 


Missoula 


850,677 


330,341 


1,181,018 



1 Area of National Forest in more than one State. 



236 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 



TABLE OF LAND 


AREAS — Continued 






ej id 


Headquarters 


National 


Patented 








of 


Forest 


and other 


Total 


State and Forest 


Forest 


Land 


lands 


area 




5£ 


Supervisor 


(acres) 


(acres) 


(acres) 


Madison 


l 


Sheridan 


958,691 


77,169 


1,035,860 


Missoula 


l 


Missoula 


1,031,529 


336,662 


1,368,191 


Sioux i 


l 


Camp Crook, 












S. D. 


96,743 


17,798 


114,541 


NEBRASKA 












Nebraska 


2 


Halsey 


206,074 


11,744 


217,818 


NEVADA 












Dixie 1 


4 


St. George, 












Utah 


282,543 


7,807 


290,350 


Eldorado i 


5 


Placerville, Cal. 


400 




400 


Humboldt 


4 


Elko 


690,562 


35,978 


726,546 


Inyo i 


5 


Bishop, Cal. 


72,817 


2,513 


75,330 


Monoi 


5 


Gardnerville 


464,315 


19,204 


483,519 


Nevada 


4 


Ely 


1,220,929 


39,871 


1,260,800 


Ruby 


4 


Elko 


342,405 


91,165 


433,570 


Santa Rosa 


4 


Elko 


269,658 


30,302 


299,960 


Tahoe i 


5 


Nevada City, 












Cal. 


14,853 


47,274 


62,127 


Toiyabe 


4 


Austin 


1,907,286 


17,514 


1,924,800 


NEW MEXICO 










Alamo 


3 


Alamogordo 


603,779 


269,877 


866,656 


Carson 


3 


Taos 


856,647 


68,654 


925,301 


Chiricahua i 


3 


Tucson, Ariz. 


126,478 


2,674 


129,152 


Datil 


3 


Magdalena 


2,670,412 


270,790 


2,941,202 


Gila 


3 


Silver City 


1,463,708 


136,292 


1,600,000 


Lincoln 


3 


Alamogordo 


551,427 


81,540 


632,967 


Manzano i 


3 


Albuquerque 


754,772 


488,007 


1,242,779 


Santa Fe 


3 


Santa Fe 


1,354,545 


122,148 


1,476,693 


NORTH 












DAKOTA 












Dakota 


1 


Camp Crook, 












S. D. 


6,054 


7,866 


13,920 


OKLAHOMA 












Wichita 


7 


Cache 


61,480 


160 


61,640 


OREGON 












Cascade 


6 


Eugene 


1,021,461 


73,024 


1,094,485 


Crater i 


6 


Medford 


793,044 


286,281 


1,079,325 


Deschutes 


6 


Bend 


1,292,423 


217,437 


1,509,860 


Fremont 


6 


Lakeview 


884,494 


86,782 


971,366 


Klamath i 


5 


Yreka, Cal. 


4,401 


4,492 


8,893 


Malheur 


6 


John Day 


1,057,682 


205,158 


1,262,840 


Minam 


6 


Baker 


430,757 


49,056 


479,813 


Ochoco 


6 


Prineville 


716,564 


102,466 


819,030 



l Area of National Forest in more than one State. 



APPENDIX 



237 



TABLE OF LAND AREAS— Continued 








Headquarters 


National 


Patented 






'Be 

.2 a 


of 


Forest 


and other 


Total 


State and Forest 


Forest 


Land 


lands 


area 




a* 


Supervisor 


(acres) 


(acres) 


(acres) 


Oregon 


6 


Portland 


1,031,926 


108,994 


1,140,920 


Santiam 


6 


Albany 


607,099 


112,884 


719,983 


Siskiyou i 


6 


Grants Pass 


998,044 


257,206 


1,255,250 


Siuslaw 


6 


Eugene 


544,178 


289,263 


833,441 


Umatilla 


6 


Pendleton 


48.5,786 


79,199 


564,985 


Umpqua 


6 


Roseburg 


1,011,097 


210,294 


1,221,391 


Wallowa 


6 


Wallowa 


964,601 


104,810 


1,069,411 


Wenaha 


6 


Walla Walla, 












Wash. 


425,504 


36,540 


461,954 


Whitman 


6 


Sumpter 


884,485 


115,008 


999,493 


PORTO RICO 












Luquillo 


7 


None 


12,443 


53,507 


65,950 


SOUTH 












DAKOTA 












Black Hills i 


2 


Deadwood 


483,403 


118,608 


602,011 


Harney 


2 


Custer 


548,854 


79,093 


627,947 


Sioux i 


1 


Camp Crook 


75,524 


7,744 


83,268 


UTAH 












Ashley i 


4 


Vernal 


982,493 


9,607 


992,100 


Cache i 


4 


Logan 


265,594 


53,987 


319,581 


Dixie i 


4 


St. George 


432,784 


26,106 


458,890 


Fillmore 


4 


Ritchfield 


699,579 


79,711 


779,290 


Fishlake 


4 


Salina 


661,245 


62,145 


723,390 


La Sal i 


4 


Moab 


519,384 


16,286 


535,670 


Manti 


4 


Ephraim 


781,800 


65,070 


846,870 


Minidoka i 


4 


Oakley, Idaho 


72,123 


20,157 


92,280 


Powell 


4 


Escalante 


689,927 


14,773 


704,700 


Sevier 


4 


Panguitch 


729,061 


73,599 


802,660 


Uinta 


4 


Provo 


988,602 


54,533 


1,043,135 


Wasatch 


4 


Salt Lake City 


607,492 


56,913 


664,405 


WASHINGTON 










Chelan 


6 


Chelan 


677,429 


46,681 


724,110 


Columbia 


6 


Portland, Ore. 


784,498 


157,702 


942,200 


Colville 


6 


Republic 


754,886 


61,114 


816,000 


Kaniksu i 


1 


Newport 


257,859 


118,904 


376,763 


Okanogan 


6 


Okanogan 


1,486,325 


54,675 


1,541,000 


Olympic 


1 


Olympia 


1,534,689 


117,311 


1,652,000 


Rainier 


6 


Tacoma 


1,315,891 


245,579 


1,561,470 


Snoqualmie 


6 


Seattle 


698,043 


343,957 


1,042,000 


Washington 


6 


Bellingham 


1,454,214 


35,786 


1,490,000 


Wenaha i 


6 


Walla Walla 


313,434 


8,397 


321,831 


Wenatchee 


6 


Leavenworth 


665,276 


491,724 


1,157,000 



l Area of National Forest in more than one State. 



238 OUR NATIONAL FORESTS 



TABLE OF LAND AREAS— Continued 







Headquarters 


National 


Patented 






■Ha 
.11 


of 


Forest 


and other 


Total 


State and Pores 


Forest 


Land 


lands 


area 




QZ 


Supervisor 


(acres) 


(acres) 


(acres) 


WYOMING 












Ashley i 


4 


Vernal, Utah 


5,987 


73 


6,060 


Bighorn 


2 


Sheridan 


1,119,725 


16,475 


1,136,200 


Black Hills 


i 2 


Deadwood, S.D. 


144,759 


34,362 


179,121 


Bridger 


2 


Pinedale 


710,570 


7,407 


717,977 


Caribou i 


4 


Montpelier, 












Idaho 


6,547 


813 


7,360 


Hayden i 


2 


Encampment 


322,175 


43,445 


365,620 


Medicine Bow 2 


Laramie 


469,786 


41,596 


511,382 


Palisade i 


4 


St. Anthony, 












Idaho 


250,501 


3,119 


253,620 


Shoshone 


2 


Cody 


1,576,043 


32,957 


1,609,000 


Targhee i 


4 


St. Anthony, 












Idaho 


84,970 


480 


85,450 


Teton 


4 


Jackson 


1,922,947 


48,245 


1,971,192 


Washakie 


2 


Lander 


852,653 


12,220 


864,873 


Wyoming 


4 Afton 


899,980 


12,020 


912,000 


Aggregate for the 147 National 








Forests . . 


| 


155,166,619 


21,085,541 


176,252,160 



l Area of National Forest in more than one State. 



PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



"THE following pages contain advertisements of a few of the 
Macmillan books on kindred subjects 



The Foundations of National Prosperity 

By RICHARD T. ELY, RALPH H. HESS, CHARLES 
K. LEITH, and THOMAS NIXON CARVER 

Cloth, 8vo, $2.00 



"A most useful assembling of closely related problems and the facts 
about them — highly stimulating to constructive thought on some of the 
most vital issues of to-day and to-morrow." — Duluth Herald. 

This book emphasizes the thought that conservation is to be regarded as 
a treatment of the foundation of national prosperity. It deals with the 
permanent causes of the wealth of nations. The titanic war struggle in 
which we are now involved makes it important to emphasize the fact that 
in conservation we have to do with national preparedness both for war and 
peace. There is danger that in our various measures we may direct our 
attention too exclusively to the needs of to-day and to-morrow, whereas 
nothing is more evident than that this preparedness must be a lasting all- 
around condition. While this volume treats primarily of prosperity and 
preparedness from the standpoint of permanency, it also has lessons for 
the immediate moment. 

Part I deals with the more general aspects of the subject, bringing it 
particularly into relation to economic theory. Conservation policies are 
considered and the fact that these are chiefly land policies is brought out. 

Part II discusses the relation of conservation to economic evolution, 
showing that each stage in economic evolution must have its own conser- 
vation policies. 

Part III gives an authoritative presentation of the minerals which play 
a peculiar part in conservation. 

And Part IV deals with the human resources for which the natural re- 
sources exist. This section is critical and leads to a very careful examina- 
tion of remedies for social evils, because it looks below the phenomena of 
the day to the permanent effects of our methods in dealing with human 
beings. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



Manual of Tree Diseases 



By W. H. RANKIN 

Professor in the Department of Plant Pathology in 
Cornell University 

Cloth, i2mo. 

The diseases of the more common trees of the United 
States are treated in this volume. The discussions of 
these diseases are grouped into chapters under the com- 
mon name of the tree affected, and the chapters are ar- 
ranged alphabetically. In a general chapter are included 
discussions of the diseases common to all kinds of trees, 
such as samping-off of seedlings, temperature injuries to 
leaves and woody parts, smoke and gas injuries, wood- 
rots, and the like. The species of trees affected, the 
geographic distribution, destructiveness and symptoms of 
the different diseases are presented in full. The casual 
agent of the diseases is briefly described, and when it is 
caused by a parasite some details of the parasite's life 
history and activities are given with suggestions as to 
control. Special attention is paid to tree surgery. Tech- 
nical details and terminology are omitted so far as possi- 
ble, and those terms used are explained in a glossary. 
The aim of the authors has been to furnish a descriptive 
guide for the diagnosis of tree diseases and the general 
methods of their control. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



Getting Acquainted with the Trees 

By J. HORACE McFARLAND 

$1.25 

"These sketches are not scientific, but popular, and 
do for inanimate nature," says the Pittsburgh Press, 
" what Ernest Thompson-Seton or John Burroughs 
have done for the beasts and birds. Trees have had 
their lovers among naturalists, painters, and poets. Mr. 
McFarland is one of these, and he has the plain and 
intimate way of saying things that conveys this interest 
to others." They record the growth of the author's 
own interest and information as he has deserved and 
enjoyed the trees among which he has walked. To 
pass on some of the benefit which has come into his 
own life from this interest in trees has been his purpose. 
The book is profusely illustrated from unusually fine 
photographs taken by the author. Such an authority 
as Prof. Charles Sargent, of the Harvard Arboretum, 
has pronounced this " a capital book." 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



The Farm Woodlot 

By E. G. CHEYNEY 

Director of the College of Forestry of the University of Minnesota 

And J. G. WENTLING 

Associate Professor of Forestry of the University of Minnesota 

Illustrated. Cloth, i2mo, $1.75 

The whole subject of raising forests and producing 
timber as a part of a farming business is covered in this 
book. Here will be found fully treated such topics as 
the rise of forestry knowledge in relation particularly 
to agriculture, forest influences, forest economics, the 
growth of the tree, the kinds of trees and the means of 
distinguishing them, the regeneration of the woodlot, the 
practical propagation of trees, methods of planting and 
thinning, the production of the forest, the best utilization 
of forests, the durability and preservation of timber. 
There are also included tables of interest to lumbermen 
and a chapter on ornamental planting. The volume is 
well illustrated, the illustrations alone largely explaining 
forest practices and making evident the differences in 
trees. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



A o 



S-J- *_' 






> „ -i f o , *2> O- . * * o . , *l. 



% 



.<£ "%. 









^ 



* — i' 4 « 



^°<- 



^ °- 



A/ - / 
\^ - 

A rO' «A*°, ^ rP' ^ C P' 




o°\ ^ /V /^L 



1/ 


















= %>* A^ 



: <i- *^ ^ 

c& CP.. CP 




cv - ^ o° v ^ . % 



•56 V -56 >\ 



a> ■<* 



% .** 






* 



^ 9* 



C> 



s) *%> V v ^ 












'.v. <<r - 

V>. AY . 1 • , -<-, „o v^ I * 1 



* J" ^ 



& A 



•>> v "^> v 



C Q ; x# 









■^o^ 



^ 



o 









^ -P <+ A G <^ A & 

^ ^. fP v <%, G° ~ x 












^ c ^ 



V 






Qt 



V V * * * ° / 






,-. 















v^ 






•v°* 


















o5 Q, 



4 <3* 



^ tf 



\> 



^ *l> 



' -# ^ 






C $ 



■<$ <> 






I 



"%.d* 



•/' 



<,' 






<> 






cy '■/ 



,^ v 



^ ^ 









c x o.V 



rt" 









& 






% 






v 



**£ 



,# ^ 















<fc. 









£<k 



^ 9* 



^0* 






% 












<%6 0° - 



iO v 



^ 



C' 









o, '' & 



^o 5 



'"'v o ^ "^ ' cP' % 



**6 



V 



<£ 






'-c 









^A0^ 



^f. 






'%, J& %. jfr %r, jl %, 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




0000^2321^3 



